Table 2.

Various characteristics of bioceramic materials with advantages and disadvantages.

Bioceramic Materials	Characteristic	Advantages	Disadvantages	Products	Reference
Alumina	Alumina is an inert ceramic material with good chemical stability and high mechanical strength. Abundant raw materials, low price, wide use, high mechanical strength, pressure resistance, high-temperature resistance, corrosion resistance, high-temperature insulation, and excellent dielectric properties.	Stability, biocompatibility, and excellent wear resistance, non-cytotoxic.	Limited strength, low mechanical properties.	Inert alumina ceramics, nanoporous alumina.	[47,48,49]
Zirconia	Similar to inkjet 3D printing, a liquid binder is used to bind the powder together and then the support layer is printed layer by layer, finally, the powder printing stand is melted directly. High mechanical strength, high strength, high toughness, high hardness, excellent chemical corrosion and wear resistance, low thermal conductivity, good insulation, and self-lubrication.	Fracture resistance and flexural strength characteristics.	Micro-cracks or inducing a phase transformation (grind or sandblasting dental treatment), Chemical aging, and wear.	Yttria-stabilized tetragonal zirconia polycrystalline (Y-TZP), zirconias versus silica-based ceramics.	[50,51]
Bioactive glass	Bioactive glass exhibits uniform interconnected macro-pores, high porosity, and high compressive strength. It can promote the expression of osteogenic genes in human bone marrow stromal cells. High biological activity, osteogenesis, osteoinduction, good combination with bone and soft tissue, and many functions.	Good bioactivity, biocompatibility, and no cytotoxicity promote bone and soft tissue regeneration.	Poor mechanical strength and intrinsic brittleness.	Bioactive glass ink; bioactive borosilicate glass (BG) scaffolds.	[52,53]
Glass-ceramics	Glass-ceramics are mainly composed of ~70 vol % of interlocked rod-like lithium disilicate crystals with high compressive strength. High mechanical strength, adjustable thermal expansion, chemical corrosion resistance, and wide application.	It has sufficient strength and chemical stability, with outstanding aesthetics, transparency, as well as low thermal conductivity with adequate strength. In addition to biocompatibility, corrosion resistance, and chemical durability.	The production process is complicated and high cost.	Strontium doping glass-ceramic material, TiO2-containing glass-ceramics.	[54,55]
Hydroxyapatite	Principal inorganic component of human or animal bones and teeth.	Good biocompatibility, bioactivity, and bone conductivity.	The degradation rate is slow, has a poor bone induction effect, and has high brittleness.	Hydroxyapatite coatings, poly (glycolic acid)/hydroxyapatite composite scaffolds.	[56,57,58]
Calcium phosphates	Similar in composition to bone minerals, the most widely used synthetic bone substitutes.	Excellent biocompatibility, bioactivity, bone conductivity, and absorbability.	Low compressive strength, no toughness, slow degradation.	Beta-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP)-based bioinks, 3D printed calcium phosphate cement (CPC).	[59,60,61]