. 2021 Apr 7;29(2):155–182. doi: 10.1080/13218719.2021.1894259

Table 2.

Study characteristics.

Author (year), country	Aim	Conception of WRD and measurement	Participants	Extent	Predictors
Allard et al. (2003) Australia	Explores relationship between inter-role conflict, intra-role conflict, role ambiguity and role preferences with burnout.	Burnout MBI	55 CCOs 69.1% female M_age = 37.82 years	Both intra and inter-role conflict significantly independently related to level of EE (p < .05)
Anson and Bloom (1988) USA	Compares occupational stress amongst various professions, including police and correctional officers.	Burnout MBI	43 POs 46% female M_age = 34.6 years	NS difference between police and POs on EE and depersonalisation NS. M score for POs: EE = 22.0 (SD = 11.0), depersonalisation = 12.0 (SD = 6.7) and personal accomplishment = 30.0 (SD = 7.0).
Dir et al. (2019) USA	Examines relationship between burnout, participatory atmosphere and mental health stigma.	Burnout MBI–GS	245 JPOs 67% female Age range = 20–69 (M unreported)	Most JPOs reported mild to moderate levels of burnout.
Gayman and Bradley (2013) USA	Examines the association between depressive symptoms, work stress and work environment (including EE).	EE CSS	826 PPOs 54% female M age = 39.24 years (SD = 9.22)	Officers reported high levels of EE (M = 2.83).	White and female officers reported higher levels of burnout. Job tenure also a predictor: longer employment associated with increased burnout. Increased work stress, role conflict and role overload all predict burnout.
Gayman et al. (2018) USA	Examines the association between caseload with depressive symptoms and EE.	EE CSS	798 PPOs 54.49% female M_age = 39.16 (SD = 9.22)	M score for EE = 2.83, representing ‘agree’ that they felt EE with work environment.	PPOs depressive symptoms, number of people on a caseload with a mental health problem, caseload size and years in current job all positively correlated with EE. Percentage of caseload receiving mental health services support associated with less EE. Perception of training adequacy to supervise people with mental health problems negatively associated with EE.
Holgate and Clegg (1991) Australia	Compares burnout between an older and younger sample of POs. Compares predictive effects of organisational and personality variables on burnout.	Burnout MBI	106 CCOs 61 females (M_age = 34 years), 45 males (M_age = 39 years)		NS difference in burnout scores between older and younger groups. For both groups: depersonalisation, role conflict, role ambiguity and emotionality all correlated positively with EE. Emotionality and role conflict had a significant direct effect upon EE.
Holloway et al. (2019) USA	Examines demographics, attitudes about participation in the workplace and burnout	Burnout MBI–GS	219 JPOs 67% female Majority 30–49 years old (M unreported)	M levels of burnout: Cynicism = 0.77 (SD = 1.02), EE = 1.23 (SD = 1.15) and professional efficacy = 3.06 (SD = 0.93).
Jin et al. (2018) China	Assesses the impact of positive (job autonomy, procedural justice and role clarity) and negative (role conflict, job stress, job dangerousness) job characteristics on burnout	Burnout MBI	225 CCOs 34% female M_age _∼ 39 years		Greater role clarity linked to reduced burnout. Greater role conflict, job stress and job dangerousness were more likely to generate greater burnout. Males more likely to report higher degree of burnout.
Lewis et al. (2013) USA	Measures the effect of negative caseload events on traumatic stress responses	CF/burnout CFST	309 POs, supervisors and administrators 159 female, 127 male, 23 gender not indicated		Supervising those who report violent recidivism involving a child victim or sexual re-offence while on caseload have significantly higher levels of CF and burnout. Those reporting offenders’ threat to self or family, assault on duty or client suicide linked to higher CF and burnout.
Lindquist and Whitehead (1986) USA	Compares burnout amongst Supervised intensive restitution officers, institutional corrections officers and PPOs	Burnout MBI	108 PPOs 20.4% female, M_age = 40.1 years	No significant difference in burnout between groups of workers.	Significant predictors: lower levels of support, greater weekly hours of contact and greater correctional seniority predict greater EE. Younger officers and those who reported greater correctional seniority, greater role conflict and lower levels of social support reported greater depersonalisation.
Merhav et al. (2018) Israel	Explores correlation of attachment styles with disruption in cognitive schemas.	VT TABS	189 adult POs 78% female M_age = 38 years		Secure attachment styles reported significantly fewer disruptions in cognitive schemas of trust than other attachment styles. Secure and dismissive-avoidant attachment styles reported significantly fewer disruptions in cognitive schema of safety than those with preoccupied and fearful avoidance attachment types. Human-induced personal trauma history significantly predicted disruptions in trust schema when controlling for attachment.
Rhineberger- Dunn et al. (2016) USA	Explores predictive factors for ST among PPOs and ROs.	ST STSS	179 PPOs: 47% female M_age = 43.86 years 98 ROs: 56% female M_age = 41.11 years	PPOs reported significantly greater number of secondary trauma symptoms compared to ROs, controlling for the other variables. Secondary trauma M for PPOs = 18.46 (SD = 13.64) For ROs = 14.19 (SD = 12.37)	Better health predicted lower ST symptoms. Reporting adequate training for job associated with lower levels of ST. Greater contact hours associated with increase in ST.
Rhineberger- Dunn et al. (2017) USA	Compares association between background and workplace predictive factors for burnout between PPOs and ROs.	Burnout MBI	179 PPOs: 47% female M_age = 43.86 years 98 ROs: 56% female M_age = 41.11 years	PPOs > ROs were more likely to report symptoms of EE and depersonalisation. NS difference in personal accomplishment. For PPOs: M scores EE = 13.61 (SD = 8.12), depersonalisation = 13.05 (SD = 7.71), personal accomplishment = 28.16 (SD = 5.74) For ROs: M scores EE = 11.09 (SD = 7.84), depersonalisation = 10.88 (SD = 8.36), personal accomplishment = 28.55 (SD = 5.4)	Women and those reporting poorer health reported higher EE. Perceptions of adequate education and job training significantly associated with lower EE. Health, educational training, job training and pay dissatisfaction all significant determinants of depersonalisation. Greater years in the field associated with lower personal accomplishment.
White et al. (2015) USA	Explores prevalence and predictive variables of burnout.	Burnout MBI–GS	245 JPOs 63.7% female Age not reported	EE: 25.5% participant scores in the low range, 35.8% moderate, 31.7% high Cynicism: 36.2% in the low range, 28.9% moderate, 27.6% high Professional efficacy: 51.2% in the low range, 26% moderate, 15.4% high	Job satisfaction was the strongest predictor of burnout: higher job satisfaction predicting lower emotional exhaustion, cynicism and higher professional efficacy. Race: Caucasians reported higher EE and cynicism. Those with high-risk clients on caseload reported higher cynicism.
Whitehead (1985) USA	Compares extent of burnout among PPOs with human service workers sample.	Burnout MBI	968 PPOs 37.4% female M_age = 35.7 years	PPOs reported significantly lower EE, though higher intensity, than human service workers sample. PPOs had higher depersonalisation across frequency and intensity. Personal accomplishment was lower in both frequency and intensity.	Curvilinear relationship between seniority and burnout. More experienced workers reported highest burnout scores, and most experienced workers reported levels of burnout similar to those just starting the job.
Whitehead (1986a) USA	Examines gender differences in job burnout, job satisfaction and role conflict	Burnout MBI	711 POs 41% female M_age = 33.9 years		Gender a significant predictor for depersonalisation. Weekly hours of offender contact predicted EE. Caseload size and age predicted depersonalisation. Job satisfaction and role conflict predicted EE and depersonalisation.
Whitehead (1986b) USA	Examines extent of job burnout and job dissatisfaction among probation managerial employees	Burnout MBI	184 PO managers: 44% supervisors, 56% upper-level administrators including probation directors, chief POs or assistant chiefs 25% female M_age= 41.7 years	Reported experiencing feelings of EE about once a month, feelings of depersonalisation less frequently than once a month and feelings of personal accomplishment about once a week. NS differences between administrators and supervisors. M: scores EE = 2.08, depersonalisation = 1.58, personal accomplishment = 4.06.
Whitehead (1987) USA	Tests two leading theories of job burnout – Maslach’s theory emphasising client contact as central cause of burnout, and Cherniss’ theory highlighting the relationship between organisational factors and burnout	Burnout MBI	387 POs Predominantly middle-aged (M not reported)		Role conflict, job satisfaction and age all had significant direct effects on EE and depersonalisation. Job satisfaction and weekly hours of client contact had significant direct effects on personal accomplishment.
Whitehead and Lindquist (1985) USA	Assesses perceptions of burnout	Burnout MBI	108 PPOs M_age = 40.1 years 20% female	21% PPOs reported feeling emotionally exhausted at least once a week or more. 8% reported depersonalisation at least once a week.	Social support and correctional seniority were significant predictors of EE. Significant predictors for depersonalisation were social support, role conflict, age and correctional seniority. Younger officers and those reporting lower levels of social support, greater role conflict and greater seniority reported greater depersonalisation.

Note: CCOs = community correction officers; CF = compassion fatigue; CFST = Compassion Satisfaction/Fatigue Self-Test for Helpers; CSS = Children’s Services Survey; EE = emotional exhaustion; JPO = juvenile probation officer; M = mean; MBI = Maslach Burnout Inventory; MBI–GS = MBI–General Survey; NS = non-significant; PO = probation officer; PPO = probation/parole officer; RO = residential officer; ST = secondary trauma; STSS = Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale; TABS = Trauma and Attachment Belief Scale; VT = vicarious trauma; WRD = work-related distress.