TABLE 2.
Neurological changes in the brain associated with mindfulness meditation.
| Article | Age | Clinical population | Sample size | Study design | Outcome |
| 1. Present-centered awareness | |||||
| Zhao et al., 2019 | 32.6 | Generalised anxiety disorder | 37 | Repeated measures pre-post 8-weeks MBCT Resting-state fMRI | MBCT: increased ACC and insula functional connectivity related to anxiety improvements |
| Goldin and Gross, 2010 | 35.2 | Social anxiety disorder | 14 | Repeated measures Pre-post 8-weeks MBSR React to negative self-beliefs under fMRI Employ attention deployment techniques Breath-focused Distraction-focused (count backwards) |
Breath-focused: reduced amygdala activation, increased cuneus and middle occipital related to improved self-esteem, anxiety and depression symptoms |
| Westbrook et al., 2013 | 45 | Addiction (smoking) | 47 | Repeated measures React to smoking and neutral pictures fMRI Employ attention deployment techniques (a) Mindful attention (non- judgmental) Look at the picture with no techniques |
Mindful attention: reduced functional connectivity between subgenual ACC and the bilateral insula, related to reduce cigarette craving |
| Schoenberg et al., 2014 | 36.7 | Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder | 44 | Randomised controlled trial 12 weeks MBCT (N = 24) vs. wait-list control (N = 20) Completed Go/No-Go task with ERP |
MBCT: increased P3 ERPs amplitudes, activities related to the inhibitory gating circuit |
| Sibalis et al., 2019 | 13 | Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder | 56 | Randomised controlled trial 20 sessions mindfulness-based martial arts treatment: including FA and body scan (N = 34) vs. wait-list control (N-22) Completed Go/ No-Go task with EEG |
MM: increased EEG beta with oscillation frequency of 12 to 30 Hz and reduced EEG theta with frequency of 4 to 7 Hz, reflecting more concentration and less unfocused thought, respectively |
| 2. Meta-awareness | |||||
| Chou et al., 2022 | 37.5 | Bipolar disorder | 44 | Two group repeated measures Bipolar disorder (N = 22) vs. healthy control (N = 22) 12 weeks MBCT vs. supportive psychotherapy Resting-state fMRI |
MBCT: subjects with Bipolar disorder showed negatively correlated dlPFC- PCC activity, related to heightened self-report meta-awareness, rated on the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire scale. |
| Tang et al., 2013 | 21.5 | Addiction (Smoking) | 50 | Randomised controlled trial Smokers (N = 27) vs. non-smoker (N = 33) 2 weeks mindfulness meditation IBMT vs. relaxation training Resting-state fMRI |
IBMT: increased activity ACC and PFC, linked to self-control. Reduced activity in PCC, related to reduce craving and cessation of smoking. Maintained reduced smoking after 4 weeks. |
| Cernasov et al., 2019 | 35.2 | Depression (Anhedonia) | 11 | Repeated measures Pre-post 15 weeks MBCT fMRI Resting-state fMRI |
MBCT: decreased in DMN connectivity between the mPFC and precuneus, correlated to reduced Beck’s Depression Inventory scores |
| Wells et al., 2013 | 74 | Mild cognitive impairment | 14 | Randomised controlled trial pilot 8 weeks MBSR (N = 9) vs. TAU (N = 5) Resting-state fMRI |
MBSR: Increased functional connectivity between the PCC and bilateral mPFC and left hippocampus compared to controls. Showed trends of less bilateral hippocampal volume atrophy than control participants. |
| 3. Non-reactive self-related processing | |||||
| Hölzel et al., 2013 | 37.9 | Generalised anxiety disorder | 26 | Randomised controlled trial 8 weeks MBSR (N = 15) vs. stress management education (N = 11) Label angry and neutral face under fMRI |
MBSR: increased functional connectivity between amygdala and PFC regions, negatively correlated to Beck Anxiety Inventory scores |
| King et al., 2016 | 31 | Post-traumatic stress disorder | 23 | Randomised controlled trial 16 weeks mindfulness-based intervention (N = 14) vs. present-centered group (N=9) Resting-state fMRI |
MM: increased DMN (PCC seed) connectivity to dlPFC regions within the CEN, correlated to improvement in avoidant and hyperarousal symptoms |
| Smallwood et al., 2016 | 46 | Comorbid chronic pain and addiction | 12 | Pilot study Chronic-pain focused ACT (N = 6) vs. health education (N = 6) At rest and painful stimulation during Resting-state fMRI |
ACT: reduced activation in middle frontal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule, insula, ACC, PCC, and superior temporal gyrus, areas related to pain responsiveness. Higher connectivity in amPFC – vmPFC and PCC and insular. |
MBCT, mindfulness-based cognitive therapy; MBSR, mindfulness-based stress reduction; IBMT, integrative body-mind training; ACT, acceptance commitment therapy; MM, mindfulness meditation; TAU, treatment as usual; ACC, anterior cingulate cortex; dlPFC, dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex; mPFC, medial prefrontal cortex; amPFC, anterior medial prefrontal cortex; vmPFC, ventral medial prefrontal cortex; PCC, posterior cingulate cortex; DMN, default-mode network; CEN, central executive network.