Table 8.
Summarizes the key activities of carotenoids in human health.
| Carotenoid | Seaweed Source | Effect | Model | Bioactive Concentration | Target | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Astaxanthin | Hematococcus pluvialis | Antioxidant | Human monocytes (U-937) | 10 μM | SHP-1 | [168] |
| Mice brain | 2 mg/kg/day | MDA, NO, APOP, GSH. | [169] | |||
| Leydig cells | 10 μg/mL | StAR | [170] | |||
| Antiproliferative | human prostatic adenocarcinoma (LNCaP) | 10 μM | prostate specific antigen (PSA) | [171] | ||
| immune system stimulation | transplantable methylcholanthrene-induced fibrosarcoma (Meth-A tumor) | 40 mg/kg/day | interferon-g (IFN-γ) | [172] | ||
| anti-obesity | Humans | 0, 6, 12 and 18 mg/day | adiponectin | [173] | ||
| Cardiovascular protective | spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) | 50 mg/kg | blood pressure (BP) | [174] | ||
| Fucoxanthin | Sargassum horneri | antioxidant and protective | Vero cells | 5, 50, 100 and 200 µM (50 µM H2O2) | DNA | [175] |
| UV protection | Human fibroblasts | 5, 50 and 100 µM (50 mJ/cm2 UV-B) | DNA | [176] | ||
| Antioxidant | Retinol deficiency rats | 0.83 µM | CAT, GST and Na+K+ATPase activity | [177] | ||
| Antiproliferative | leukemia cells (HD-60) | 11.3 and 45.2 μM | DNA fragmentation | [178] | ||
| colorectal adenocarcinoma cells (Caco-2) | 15.2 μM | DNA fragmentation | [178] | |||
| colorectal adenocarcinoma cells (DLD-1) | 15.2 μM | DNA fragmentation | [178] | |||
| colorectal adenocarcinoma cells (CHT-29) | 15.2 μM | DNA fragmentation | [178] | |||
| human colorectal carcinoma (HCT116) | 5 and 10 μM | Bcl-xL, PARP and caspase 3 and 7 | [179] | |||
| Antiproliferative | human urinary bladder cancer cells (EJ-1) | 20 μM | [180] | |||
| anti-obesity | Rats | 2 mg | absorption of triglycerides, pancreatic lipase | [181] | ||
| Fucoxanthinol | Corbicula fluminea | Antiproliferative | human prostate cancer (PC-3) | 2.0 μM | Bcl-xL, PARP and caspase 3 and 7 | [179] |
| anti-obesity | Rats | 2 mg | absorption of triglycerides, pancreatic lipase | [181] | ||
| Halocynthiaxanthin | Mastocarpus stellatus | Antiproliferative | human neuroblastoma cells (GOTO) | 5 μg/mL | [182] | |
| β-carotene | Kappaphycus alvarezii | Antioxidant | Smokers | 20 mg | Breath pentane | [183] |
| Cure of erythema | Humans | 30 to 90 mg/day | [184] | |||
| Antiproliferative | murine osteosarcoma (LM8) | 30 µM | [185] | |||
| Antiinfiammatory | human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) | 0.02 µmol/L | VCAM-1, ICAM-1 and E-Selectin | [186] | ||
| Lutein | Zostera noltii | ADM prevention | Human Dermal Lymphatic Endothelial Cells (HLEC) | 5 µM | DNA, lipid and protein level | [187] |
| Cardiovascular protective | Human monocytes | 0.1, 1, 10 and 100 nM | LDL associated with artery wall | [182] | ||
| Zeaxanthin | Pyropia yezoensis | ADM prevention | Human Dermal Lymphatic Endothelial Cells (HLEC) | 5 µM | DNA, lipid and protein level | [187] |
Abbreviations: SHP-1: protein tyrosine phosphatase non-receptor type 6; MDA: Malondialdehyde; NO: nitric oxide; APOP: protein oxidation product; GSH: glutathione; CAT: catalase; GST: glutathione S-transeferase; Bcl-xL: antiapoptotic factor; PARP: poly-ADP-ribose polymerase; (VCAM-1, ICAM-1): genes coding for vascular adhesion proteins.