Table 1.

Snake-bite therapies comprising single plant species.

Formulation/Dose/Direction	Plant Common Name	Botanical Name (Family)
To treat cobra, Russell’s viper or saw-scaled viper envenomation, juice of Indian snakeroot should be orally administered [20] (V. 3, p. 417).	Indian snakeroot	Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz (Apocynaceae)
Four parts of castor leaf juice diluted with one part of water should be taken orally, and a paste of the leaves should be applied to the bite area. The individual will vomit venom [20] (V. 1, p. 54).	Castor	Ricinus communis L. (Euphorbiaceae)
Prickly pear root levigated in cow milk should be administered twice daily. Eating spicy foods should be avoided [20] (V. 4, p. 258).	Prickly pear	Opuntia elatior Mill. (Cactaceae)
Sacred tree root levigated with water should be orally administered and a thick paste should be applied topically to the bite area [20] (V. 4, p. 273).	Sacred tree	Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. (Fabaceae)
To treat krait venom: 5–10 mL of Portia bark juice should be taken orally [20] (V. 4, p. 279).	Portia tree	Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Corrêa (Malvaceae)
To treat cobra and saw-scaled viper venom: The juice of crowded-flower jasmine leaves should be administered orally as per tolerance [20] (V. 5, p. 381).	Crowded-flower jasmine	Jasminum coarctatum Roxb. (Oleaceae)
To treat snake or Russell’s viper venom: Levigated paste of white Nerium root should be applied topically on the bite area, or juice of leaves should be administered orally. In case of drowsiness due to this medication, clarified butter should be administered [20] (V. 2, p. 69).	Oleander or Nerium	Nerium oleander L. (Apocynaceae)
To treat krait envenomation: Levigated paste of spiny gourd tubers in honey should be instilled into the eyes, or juice should be administered orally [20] (V. 2, p. 74).	Spiny gourd	Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd. (Cucurbitaceae)
Levigated paste of spiny gourd tubers in water should be administered orally and applied topically to the stung area [20] (V. 2, p. 74).	Spiny gourd	Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd. (Cucurbitaceae)
Apple of Sodom leaves should be crushed with its sticky sap and formed into pills. These pills should be administered orally at regular intervals, or a levigated root paste should be administered orally [20] (V. 5, p. 360).	Apple of Sodom	Calotropis procera Aiton (Apocynaceae)
Levigated paste of sacred tree root should be administered orally or applied topically [20] (V. 4, p. 273).	Sacred tree	Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. (Fabaceae)
Levigated paste of creeping launaea root should be administered orally [20] (V. 4, p. 278).	Creeping launaea	Launaea procumbens L. (Asteraceae)
Colocynth root should be consumed in Paan/Vida (a preparation of betel leaf and areca nut made with slacked lime) [20] (V. 1, p. 38).	Colocynth	Citrullus colocynthis L. (Cucurbitaceae)
Levigated paste of conkerberry root in water should be administered orally [20] (V. 2, p. 75).	Conkerberry	Carissa congesta Wight. (Apocynaceae)
Filtered aqueous soapberry solution should be instilled in the eyes. In the case of severe envenomation, soapberry water should be administered orally so that the venom is vomited out. To avoid postinstillation irritation of the eyes, white butter or clarified butter should be applied [20] (V. 5, p. 357).	Indian soapberry	Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn. (Sapindaceae)
Snakebite test: A person not recognising the taste of neem leaves, salt or chilli peppers when given orally indicates snake envenomation. To treat envenomation, neem leaves should be chewed, or leaf or bark juice should be administered orally [20] (V. 2, p. 63).	Neem	Azadirachta indica A.Juss. (Meliaceae)
In the case of skin lumps caused by saw-scaled viper venom: Warmed bitter cumin leaves should be applied topically, or its juice should be rubbed on the affected area [20] (V. 2, p. 61).	Bitter cumin	Centratherum anthelminticum (L.) Kuntze. (Asteraceae)
For cobra venom: Cluster fig bark paste diluted with the mixture of its juice and milk should be administered orally [9] (p. 89).	Cluster fig	Ficus racemosa L. (Moraceae)
In the event of a snakebite: Jaggery and sesame seeds should be crushed in cow’s milk and consumed orally [9] (p. 16).	Sesame seeds	Sesamum indicum L. (Pedaliaceae)
Crushed paste of prickly pear leaves should be applied topically [9] (p. 87).	Prickly pear	Opuntia elatior Mill. (Cactaceae)
Punarnava root levigated with water should be administered [9] (p. 87).	Punarnava	Boerhavia diffusa L. Nom. Cons. (Nyctaginaceae)
Powdered Punarnava roots should be administered orally with water [9] (p. 87).	Punarnava	Boerhavia diffusa L. Nom. Cons. (Nyctaginaceae)
Crushed coffeeweed root paste should be instilled in the eyes [9] (p. 99).	Coffeeweed	Cassia occidentalis (L.) Rose. (Caesalpiniaceae)
The root of the apple of Sodom levigated with water should be instilled into the nose and eyes [9] (p. 99).	Apple of Sodom	Calotropis procera Aiton (Apocynaceae)
Rosary peas levigated with water should be administered orally [9] (p. 99).	Rosary pea	Abrus precatorius L. (Fabaceae)
An aqueous solution of Indian soapberry should be administered orally until the patient vomits a couple of times. An aqueous paste made from Indian soapberry should be instilled into the eyes. Levigated paste of Indian soapberries should be applied topically to the stung area [9] (p. 15).	Indian soapberry	Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn. (Sapindaceae)
Powdered potato yam stem bark should be administered with water [9] (p. 19).	Potato yam	Dioscorea bulbifera L. (Dioscoreaceae)
A reference from Ceylon (Sri Lanka): The key lime juice was applied to the stung area, and leeches were placed around it. On the third day, a laxative was administered, and the person was cured [9] (p. 114).	Key lime	Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle (Rutaceae)
One or one and a half bristly luffa fruits should be crushed in water, decanted and administered orally. Clarified butter should be administered after vomiting occurs [9] (p. 124).	Bristly luffa	Luffa echinata Roxb. (Cucurbitaceae)
To treat Russel’s viper bite: Apply castor oil topically on the bite [9] (p. 142).	Castor	Ricinus communis L. (Euphorbiaceae)
To treat krait envenomation: Oral administration of fire-flame bush juice is recommended [9] (p. 256).	Fire-flame bush	Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz (Lythraceae)
The juice prepared from a minimum of 12–18 g of colocynth or its water extract should be taken orally. Venom will be expelled out in the form of vomit or faeces [9] (p. 260).	Colocynth	Citrullus colocynthis L. (Cucurbitaceae)
The root of Indian night shade levigated with water should be administered orally and applied topically on the stung area [9] (p. 274).	Indian night shade	Solanum indicum L. (Solanaceae)
Bristly luffa fruit extract in 40 g of cold water should be taken orally twice a day [9] (p. 297).	Bristly luffa	Luffa echinata Roxb. (Cucurbitaceae)
Levigated paste of devil’s goad roots should be administered orally [9] (p. 297).	Devil’s goad	Croton roxburghii Balakr. (Euphorbiaceae)
Steamed grated unripe papaya should be applied topically for 2–4 days around the bite area [9] (p. 297).	Papaya	Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae)