Poorly Investigated Ecuadorian Medicinal Plants

Abstract

Ecuador has, in proportion of its size, one of the richest floras of Latin America and the world; the country also has an immense cultural heritage due to the presence of different ethnic groups that have implemented the use of many wild and cultivated plants, mainly as medicinal remedies. In a recent publication, we have summarized the results of research activities recently carried out on about 120 plants native to Ecuador, which includes the structures of non-volatile isolated compounds, as well as the chemical composition of essential oils (EOs) and the in vitro tested biological activity data. For the sake of completeness, we have collected in this paper the main information obtained from recent ethnobotanical investigations on other important Ecuadorian medicinal plants for which phytochemical, pharmacological, and toxicological studies are, however, still largely lacking. Thus, one of the objectives of this paper is to preserve the traditional knowledge of Ecuadorian Indigenous communities which, being transmitted orally, is in danger of becoming lost. Moreover, it is our intention to stimulate more extensive studies on the rich medicinal flora of the country, which can provide economic and social benefits, especially to the people who traditionally cultivate or collect the plants.

1. Introduction

The different ethnic groups living in Ecuador have managed, through a process of social and biological evolution, to manage and use numerous medicinal plants for their own benefit [1,2]. In fact, in Indigenous communities, traditional healer practitioners and shamans use a variety of medicinal plants and natural remedies for their health-care practices and religious rituals. This knowledge is entirely empirical and is passed orally from generation to generation, thus it is in danger of becoming lost [3]. Moreover, the ancestral consumption of medicinal and hallucinogenic plants by native peoples [4] is based on popular traditions, and on the apparent efficacy and safety of these remedies for the treatments and cures of ailments of different kinds, or for performing rituals [5]. However, no scientific evidence has validated most of these effects. This situation is common to most developing countries, where the cost of western world drugs is often prohibitive. As a result, it is estimated that about 60% of the world’s population uses plants almost exclusively as a source of medicines, although there is generally no control over the chemical compositions, while the effectiveness and the absence of chronic toxicity are all to be demonstrated.

Ecuador (Figure 1), thanks to its high biodiversity, is included in the list of the 17 megadiverse world countries [6], all of which are partially or totally located between the tropics. Moreover, it is worthwhile to note that the surface of Ecuador is the smallest among the megadiverse countries, with around 258,000 km², which correspond to only 0.02% of the earth’s surface. Regarding the number of native vascular plants growing in Ecuador, the Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Ecuador, published in 1999, listed a total of 15,306 species, including 1298 pteridophytes, 17 gymnosperms, and 13,991 angiosperms [7]. Recently, the number of native taxa has been increased to 17,500 [8,9], of which from 4500 to 5500 are endemic [10,11]. However, it is estimated that, with the assessment of the studies on the Ecuadorian flora, the total number of vascular plants could reach 25,000 [11], which is just below 7% of the world’s known plants.

Figure 1.

Provinces of Ecuador.

Despite the worldwide recognition as a megadiverse country, there is no general agreement on which components of Ecuador’s biodiversity are to be studied scientifically and used sustainably as a priority. In this context, we believe that an intelligent exploitation of the different useful vascular plants, and within them the hundreds of medicinal species used by the Indigenous communities, could provide numerous economic and social benefits to the entire population of Ecuador. In this regard, it is important to remember that the World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended the studies in the field of traditional medicinal plants as an aid to developing countries [12]. It should also be considered that more than 25% of the drugs on the market in industrialized countries are based on natural compounds or their derivatives; in particular, 60–80% of antibacterial and anticancer drugs are of natural origin [13,14]. Thus, the search for new bioactive lead compounds of natural origin, especially from poorly investigated regions of biodiversity, remains one of the main strategic lines of pharmaceutical research.

For these reasons, aimed at enhancing the value of the botanical resources of Ecuador and at sustaining the medicinal uses of local plants by scientific evidence, we have summarized the results of research activities carried out on hundreds of species growing in Ecuador in a couple of recent publications [2,15]. They include the structures of isolated non-volatile compounds, as well as the chemical composition of essential oils (EOs) and in vitro tested biological activity data. However, phytochemical, pharmacological, and toxicological studies are still largely lacking for several other native and endemic plants used in the traditional medicine of Ecuador, which are mentioned in a few ethnobotanical studies [15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22]. We believe that also orphan or poorly investigated medicinal plants may become important sources of secondary biologically active metabolites and give different opportunities for their sustainable uses. Therefore, in this paper, we have critically collected the available pertinent information about poorly investigated traditional native and endemic plants of Ecuador (Table 1), with the intention to stimulate further scientific investigations on the rich medicinal flora of the country. When reported in literature, phytochemical and/or pharmacological data of a species included in Table 1 are briefly described. For the sake of ethnopharmacological completeness, imported species used in the traditional medicine of Ecuador, which have not been reported in the previous reviews [2,15], are included in Table 2.

Table 1.

Botanical and vernacular names, phytochemical and pharmacological data, used part(s), and traditional uses of native and endemic medicinal plants of Ecuador ^a.

No.	Botanical Name	Vernacular Name	Phytochemical and Pharmacological Data b	Used Part(s) of the Plant	Traditional Uses
	ACANTHACEAE
1	Justicia pectoralis Jacq.	Saucillo, tigrecillo	No information is reported in literature.	Branches	It is used orally to treat general disorders of nervous and dermatological systems, and culture-related syndromes [4,16,20,21,22].
	AMARANTHACEAE
2	Alternanthera porrigens (Jacq.) Kunze	Moradilla	No information is reported in literature.	Branches, flowers	It is used orally and in baths to treat general disorders of the gynecological system [20,21].
3	Amaranthus caudatus L.	Amaranto, ataco morado	No information is reported in literature.	Inflorescences	It is used orally and in baths to treat disorders of the circulatory, gynecological, and respiratory systems [20,21].
4	Amaranthus cruentus L.	Ataco, sangorache	No information is reported in literature.	Inflorescences, leaves	Anti-inflammatory, astringent, anti-flu, antihemorrhagic, diuretic and tonic, carminative, emmenagogue, hepatic, stimulant, to enhance blood circulation, and to treat abdominal pain related to menstruation [4,16,20].
5	Amaranthus hybridus L.	Bledo, ataco	No information is reported in literature.	Inflorescences	It is used orally to treat general disorders of the circulatory, gynecological, respiratory, and urinary systems [21].
6	Amaranthus quitensis Kunth	Ataco	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves, roots	Pain relief (at joints, head, throat), and to treat gastrointestinal and respiratory problems [18].
7	Iresine diffusa Humb. & Bonp. Ex Willd	Tigrecillo, velo de novia, chulco, escancel	No information is reported in literature.	Branches	In topical applications, oral poultices, and washings to heal disorders of the dermatological, digestive, gynecological, urinary, nervous, and respiratory systems [21].
8	Iresine herbstii Hook.	Escancel, lancetilla, tigrecillo	The isoflavanone 2′,2,5-trimethoxy-6,7-methylenedioxyisoflavanone, together with the isoflavone tlatlancuayin (2′,5-dimethoxy-6,7-methylenedioxyisoflavone) were isolated from the aerial parts [27].	Leaves, stalks, whole plant, stems, branches	Anti-inflammatory, anti-flu, analgesic, diuretic, sedative, and tonic. To treat intestinal, uterus, and vaginal infections, injuries, liver and kidney problems, general disorders of the gynecological, nervous, urinary, respiratory, dermatological, and digestive systems, mal aire (bad air) d, and culture-related syndromes [4,16,20,21,22].
9	Marchantia polymorpha L.	Sapo yuyu	No information is reported in literature.	Whole plant	To heal body malaise [4].
	APIACEAE
10	Arracacia xanthorrhiza Bancr. c	Zanahoria blanca	This species is well known as food.	Leaves	To eliminate the cattle placenta [4].
11	Eryngium foetidum L.	Culantro extranjero	Phytochemical analysis of the leaves indicated the presence of flavonoids, tannins, a saponin and several triterpenoids, as well as the absence of alkaloids. A significant constituent of the EO of the plant is (E)-2-dodecenal (“eryngial”), accompanied by minor amounts of trimethylbenzaldehyde isomers. Pharmacological studies of the aerial parts have demonstrated anthelmintic activity due to eryngial, anti-inflammatory action due to the phytosterol fractions, anti-convulsant activity, and selective antibacterial activity against Salmonella and Erwinia species [28].	Whole plant	It is used to treat stomach pain [22].
	APOCYNACEAE
12	Lacmellea spaciosa Woodson	Chicle	No information is reported in literature.	Fruits	Huaorani eat fruits. The latex from the trunk is used to clean teeth and as chewing gum [19].
13	Marsdenia condurango Rchb. f	Condurango	Pregnane glycosides isolated from the bark of M. cundurango were evaluated for their cytotoxic activity against human HL-60 leukemia cells, A549 lung adenocarcinoma cells, and TIG-3 normal lung cells. Moreover, a representative pregnane glycoside induced apoptosis in HL-60 cells [29].	Bark	It is used orally to treat general disorders of the digestive system [21].
	ARECACEAE
14	Ceroxylon parvifrons (Engel) H. Wendl.	Palma de ramos	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves	The aerial parts are used as incense [4].
	ASCLEPIADACEAE
15	Orthosia ellemannii (Morillo) Liede & Meve	Cola de caballo	No information is reported in literature.	Branches	It is used orally to treat general disorders of the urinary system [21].
	ASTERACEAE
16	Aequatorium jamesonii (S.F. Blake) C. Jeffrey	Guangalo	No information is reported in literature.	Branches	Branches are rubbed to treat culture-related syndromes [21].
17	Achyrocline hallii Hieron	Sacha algodón, lechugilla	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves, whole plant	To treat disorders of the digestive system and injuries [4,21].
18	Ambrosia arborescens Mill.	Marco, altamiso	Sotillo et al. investigated the anticancer activity of sesquiterpene lactones isolated from the plant and a few synthetic derivatives against breast cancer cell lines, especially against cancer stem cells (CSCs) [30].	Leaves, branches	Pain relief (joints, head, throat), and to treat gastrointestinal, respiratory, and muscular problems. Topical applications and rubbings are also used to treat disorders of the dermatological system and culture-related syndromes [18,21].
19	Ambrosia artemisioides Meyen & Walpers ex Meyen	Marco	Compounds derived from allantolactone, as well as epieudesmane and oplopanone sesquiterpenes have been isolated from samples of A. artemisioides collected in the Tacna region of southern Peru [31].	Branches	To cure the fever or the cold caused by cold air or strong winds (locally known as mal aire in Spanish) d [4].
20	Aristeguietia persicifolia (Kunth) R.M. King & H. Rob	Ishpingo, monte de culebra	No information is reported in literature.	Branches	Branches are rubbed to treat culture-related syndromes [21].
21	Artemisia sodiroi Hieron	Ajenjo, alcanfor	A specimen collected in Ecuador gave a volatile fraction which contained sabinyl acetate (65.8%) as the main constituent [32].	Branches	Branches are rubbed to treat culture-related syndromes [21]. and gargles are used to heal disorders of the respiratory system [21].
22	Baccharis oblongifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers.	Chilca	The flavonoids oblongifoliosides A and B have been isolated from the leaves [33].	Branches	To cure a restless and confused child, and in postpartum baths [4].
23	Baccharis latifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers.	Chilca larga	A specimen collected in Ecuador afforded an essential oil, whose main components were limonene (33.72%), β-phellandrene (10.32%), sabinene (10.28%), β-pinene (6.99%), and α-pinene (5.44%). The essential oil exhibited moderate activity against Trichophyton rubrum (ATCC 28188) and Trichophyton mentagrophytes (ATCC 28185) [34].	Leaves, stalks	Pain relief (joints, head, throat) and to treat gastrointestinal, skin (inflammation, bruises), renal-urological, and neurological problems. Rubbings are used to treat culture-related syndromes [18,22].
24	Bidens andicola Kunth.	Ñachic, nachag	A new glycosyl chalcone ester, together with 7-O-glycosyl derivatives of flavonoids quercetin and quercetin 3-O-methyl ether have been isolated from the aerial parts. The sugar chains contained three or four sugar units, including β-D-glucopyranose, α-L-rhamnopyranose, and β-D-xylopyranose [35].	Whole plant, leaves	To decrease disease relapses after recovery (locally known as recaída in Spanish) and pain relief (joints, head, throat) [4,18].
25	Bidens pilosa L.	Pacunga, amor seco, huichingue	The isolation of sterols, terpenoids, phenylpropanoids and hydrocarbons were reported [36].	Whole plant, flowers	To decrease disease relapses after recovery (locally known as recaída), pain relief (at joints, head, throat), and as an anti-inflammatory [4,16].
26	Bidens triplinervia Kunth	Ñachig	No information is reported in literature.	Whole plant without roots	It is used orally to treat disorders of the gynecological system [21].
27	Diplostephium oblanceolatum S. F. Blake	Chuquiragua	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves	To heal body malaise [4].
28	Gamochaeta americana (Mill.) Wedd.	Rabo de danta, lechuguilla, lancetilla	No information is reported in literature.	Whole plant	To cure the cold [4].
29	Loricaria thuyoides (Lam.) Sch. Bip.	Ushcu chaqui, pata de gallinazo, trensilla	No information is reported in literature.	Branches	To cure a restless and confused child and used as a tonic and in energy baths [4].
30	Oritrophium peruvianum (Lam.) Cuatrec.	Uña kushma	No information is reported in literature.	Whole plant	To heal liver and kidney inflammations [4].
31	Vernonanthura patens (Kunth) H. Rob.	Jujumba	Lupeol was identified in the callus extract [37].	Leaves	It is used orally to treat disorders of the dermatological system [22].
	BASELLACEAE
32	Anredera ramosa (Moq.) Eliasson.	Lutuyuyu	No information is reported in literature.	Whole plant	In baths for children, and to cure fever and headache [4].
	BEGONIACEAE
33	Begonia x tuberhybrida Voss	Begonia rosada	No information is reported in literature.	Flowers, petals	To treat constipation [16]., and used as a sedative and tonic [20].
	BETULACEAE
34	Alnus acuminata Kunth	Aliso	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves, buds	To cure headaches, and to treat bone fractures, sprains, and dislocations [4].
	BRASSICACEAE
35	Cardamine bonariensis Pers.	Berro	No information is reported in literature.	Whole plant	It is used orally to cure disorders of the circulatory system [21].
36	Lepidium chichicara Desv.	Chichira negra	No information is reported in literature.	Whole plant	To decrease disease relapses after recovery (locally known as recaída in Spanish), to cure the fever or the cold caused by cold air or strong winds (locally known as mal aire (bad air) d [4].
37	Lepidium thurberi Wooton	Chichira	No information is reported in literature.	Plant without roots	It is used orally to treat gynecological disorders [21].
	BROMELIACEAE
38	Tillandsia straminea Kunth	Flor de cristo, clavel del aire	No information is reported in literature.	Flowers	It is used to treat neurological disorders [21].
	CACTACEAE
39	Cumulopuntia corotilla (K.Schum. ex Vaupel) E.F.Anderson	Corotilla	No information is reported in literature.	Whole plant	Pain relief (joints, head, throat), and to treat skin (inflammation, bruises) and neurological problems [18].
	CAMPANULACEAE
40	Siphocampylus scandens (Kunth) G. Don	Pena roja de monte	No information is reported in literature.	Flowers	To treat neurological problems [4].
	CANNACEAE
41	Canna indica L.	Achira	The phytochemical analysis showed the presence of alkaloids, carbohydrates, proteins, flavonoids, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides, oils, steroids, tannins, saponins, anthocyanin pigments, phlobatinins, and other chemical compounds. The pharmacological studies showed that this plant exerted antibacterial, antiviral, anthelmintic, molluscicidal, anti-inflammatory, analgesic immunomodulatory, antioxidant, cytotoxic, hemostatic, hepatoprotective, anti-diarrheal, and other effects [38].	Leaves	It is used to treat general neurological and respiratory problems [21,22].
42	Canna coccinea Mill.	Platanillo	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves, flowers	Pain relief (joints, head, throat) [18].
	CAPPARACEAE
43	Cleome longifolia C. Presl.	Sacha yuca	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves	Antirheumatic [4].
	CARICACEAE
44	Carica pubescens Lenn’e & C. Koch c	Chihualcán, chamburo	Ethyl 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyloxybutanoate, butyl 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyloxybutanoate, and 3-oxo-octyl 1-O-β-D-glucopyranoside were isolated from fruit pulp by liquid chromatography on XAD [39].	Fruits, leaves	To cure nerves, diarrhea, and dislocations [4].
	COMBRETACEAE
45	Conocarpus erectus L.	Botoncillo	The extracts of leaves, shoot, bark, and fruit showed high antibacterial, antioxidant, and hepta-protective activities due to phenolic content. Tannins and flavonoids were the main constituents. Tannins exhibited high antibacterial activity [40].	Flowers	Pain relief (joints, head, throat) [18].
	COMMELINACEAE
46	Callisia gracilis (Kunth) R. D. Hunt	Cachorillo, cachurillo, calcec, calcha verde, calsug	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves	To cure general gynecological disorders [21,22].
47	Callisia repens (Jacq.) L.	Calsi, calcha, calcec pequeño	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves	To prevent postpartum relapse [4,21].
	CLUSIACEAE
48	Vismia baccifera (L.) Triana & Planch.	Achotillo, sangre de gallina, ushca	Triprenylated anthranoids ferruginins A and B, together with ferruantrone and harunganin, were isolated from the taxon V. baccifera var. ferruginea [41].	Leaves	To treat skin conditions and fainting spells [19].
	CUCURBITACEAE
49	Cyclanthera pedata (L.) Schrad. c	Achoccha, achogcha, caigua	From a methanolic extract of the fruits flavonoid glycosides were separated by HPLC and identified [42].	Fruits	To cure earache and to decrease disease relapses after recovery (locally known as recaída in Spanish) [4].
	EQUISETACEAE
50	Equisetum bogotense Kunth.	Cola de caballo, caballo chupa	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves, stalks, whole plant	Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, depurative, diuretic, hepatic, febrifuge, anticancer, anticough, anti-parasite, and to cure kidney problems and liver inflammation [4,16,20,21].
51	Equisetum giganteum L.	Chupa caballo, cola de caballo	Caffeic acid derivatives, flavonoids, and styrilpyrones were identified. The most abundant glycosylated flavonoids were kaempferol derivatives [43].	Leaves, stalks	Pain relief (joints, head, throat), anti-inflammatory, and to treat gastrointestinal, respiratory, skin (inflammation, bruises), and renal-urological problems [9,21].
	ERICACEAE
52	Bejaria aestuans L.	Payana, payamo, payamo	No information is reported in literature.	Flowers	To treat abdominal pain related to menstruation [4,21].
53	Bejaria subsessilis Benth.	Pena de cerro, joyapa	No information is reported in literature.	Flowers	To treat neurological problems [4].
54	Cavendishia bracteata (Ruiz & Pav. ex J. St.-Hil.) Hoerold	Joyapa, salapa	No information is reported in literature.	Fruits	Feed [4].
55	Disterigma alaternoides (Kunth) Nied.	Perlillas o joyapilla	No information is reported in literature.	Fruits	To treat physical exhaustion [4].
56	Gaultheria erecta Vent.	Monte blanco	No information is reported in literature.	Fruits	To treat physical exhaustion [4].
57	Macleania rupestris (Kunth) A. C. Sm.	Joyapa, salapa verde	No information is reported in literature.	Fruits	Antidiarrheal and to treat general physical malaise [4].
	ERIOCAULACEAE
58	Paepalanthus ensifolius (Kunth) Kunth.	Cucharillo	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves	To cure nerves [4].
59	Eriocaulon microcephalum Kunth	Monte de seguro	No information is reported in literature.	Whole plant	To wish good luck [4].
	EUPHORBIACEAE
60	Cnidoscolus aconitifolius (Mill.) I.M. Johnst	Chaya	Kaempferol, quercetin, and myricetin were the most abundant phenolic compounds found in an extract [44].	Leaves	To treat general digestive and circulatory problems [21].
61	Sapium glandulosum (L.) Morong	Caucho	LC-MS analysis of the latex revealed the presence of tigliane-type diterpenoids, especially 12-deoxyphorbol esters. Considering that 12-deoxytigliane diterpenes are described as antitumor and antiviral agents, these results indicated that this plant has pharmacological potential [45].	Leaves	An infusion of burnt leaves is used to remove pimples from the skin. The leaves are used to cure fainting [19].
	FABACEAE
62	Acacia macracantha Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.	Uña de gato	The sugars identified in gum exudates of eight specimens of A. macracantha collected in Venezuela were galactose, arabinose, glucuronic acid, 4-O-methylglucuronic acid, and rhamnose [46].	Leaves, flowers	Pain relief (joints, head, throat), anti-inflammatory, and to treat gastrointestinal, skin (inflammation, bruises), and renal-urological problems [18].
63	Amicia glandulosa Kunth	Nona, urusus, orozús	No information is reported in literature.	Flowers	To treat respiratory disorders [21].
64	Desmodium molliculum (Kunth) DC.	San Antonio, hierba de san Antonio, hierba del ángel	No information is reported in literature.	Plant without roots	To treat gynecological disorders [21].
65	Myroxylon balsamum (L) Harms	Chaquino	(±)-7-Hydroxy-4′-methoxyisoflavanone, (±)-7,3′-dihydroxy-4′-methoxyisoflavanone, and 2-(2′,4′-dihydroxyphenyl)-5,6-dimethoxybenzofuran were isolated from this species [47].	Bark	To treat digestive disorders [21].
66	Myroxylon peruiferum L. f.	Chaquino	Two flavonoids, 2′-hydroxy-7,3′,4′-trimethoxyisoflavanone, and 2′-hydroxy-7,3′,4′-trimethoxyisoflavone were isolated from this species [48].	Bark	To treat general respiratory disorders [22].
	GENTIANACEAE
67	Halenia weddelliana Gilg	Taruka cacho, cacho de venado	No information is reported in literature.	Whole plant	It helps maintain milk production in cattle [4].
68	Macrocarpaea lenae J. R. Grant	Tabaco de cerro	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves	To cure the fever or the cold caused by cold air or strong winds (locally known as mal aire (bad air) d [4].
	GERANIACEAE
69	Geranium diffusum Kunth.	Cáncer	No information is reported in literature.	Whole plant	To cure gangrene and infections after birth [4].
	JUGLANDACEAE
70	Juglans neotropica Diels. c	Nogal, tocte	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves	In postpartum baths, and to treat disorders of the circulatory system [4,21,22].
	LAMIACEAE
71	Hyptis purdiei Benth.	Poleo de cerro, poleo negro	No information is reported in literature.	Branches	The plant is rubbed to treat culture-related syndromes [21].
72	Minthostachys mollis (Kunth) Griseb.	Poleo blanco, tipo	This aromatic shrub grows wild in the Andes above 1500 m of altitude from Venezuela to Argentina. Apparently, the composition of the essential oil of the plant grown in different geographical locations is not the same. A specimen from Argentina contained (-)-menthone as the main component; the oil from M. mollis collected in Ecuador contained neomenthol, (-)-menthone and menthol as the main constituents, while pulegone (75.2–79.3%) predominated among 28 components identified in the oil from Venezuela [49].	Branches	To cure the fever or the cold caused by cold air or strong winds (locally known as mal aire (bad air) d, for pain relief (joints, head, throat), anti-inflammatory, and to cure respiratory problems [4,18,21].
73	Salvia leucocephala Kunth.	Espliego, lavanda	No information is reported in literature.	Whole plant	In postpartum baths [4].
74	Salvia scutellarioides Kunth.(syn. S. palaefolia)	Matico grande, salvia flor azul	Alkaloids, triterpenes, and lignans were isolated this species [50].	Flowers	Vaho de agua (supernatural disease caused by exposure to water-vapors from rivers, lakes, etc.) d [4,21].
	LAURACEAE
75	Persea americana Mill.	Aguacate, palta	Juglanin and (+)-lyoniresinol were isolated from the leaves. Both compounds showed significant cell regeneration in neomycin-damaged hair cell without cellular toxicity [51].	Seeds	To treat coups and hematomas [4].
	LYCOPODIACEAE
76	Huperzia sellifolia B. Øllg.	Wuaminga colorado	No information is reported in literature.	Whole plant	Amulet against evil eye and sorcery d [4].
77	Lycopodium weberbaueri (Nessel).	Wuaminga suco or gris	No information is reported in literature.	Whole plant	Amulet against evil eye and sorcery d [4].
78	Huperzia austroecuadorica B. Øllg	Wuaminga verde (pequeña)	No information is reported in literature.	Whole plant	Amulet against evil eye and sorcery d [4].
	MELASTOMATACEAE
79	Aciotis rubricaulis (Mart. ex DC.) Triana	Chulco	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves, stalks	Pain relief (joints, head, throat), and to treat gastrointestinal and renal-urological problems [18].
80	Brachyotum confertum (Bonpl.) Triana.	Sacha zarcillo	No information is reported in literature.	Branches	Against allergies [4].
81	Tibouchina laxa (Desr.) Cogn.	Dumaricgri, dumarín, chininingue, garra del diablo	No information is reported in literature.	Flowers	To treat eye infections of guinea pigs (it has not been used for man) [4].
	MELIACEAE
82	Cedrela montana Moritz ex Turcz.	Cedro andino, cedro blanco	Two oleanane-type triterpenes, 3-oxo-11a,12a-epoxy-oleanan-28,13b-olide and 3-oxo-olean-11-en-28,13b-olide, were isolated from the fruits and seeds. In addition, the known compounds oleanonic acid, a mixture of b-sitosterol and stigmasterol, and the limonoid photogedunin were isolated [52].	Leaves	In postpartum baths and to relieve bone pain [4].
	MORACEAE
83	Ficus yoponensis Desv.	Saumerio	No information is reported in literature.	Latex	The latex has medicinal and technological uses and serves as an adhesive to bandage wounds. To treat kidney diseases and rheumatic pain, stomach pain and ulcers, varicose veins, hepatic inflammatory processes, and used as a vermifuge [19].
	MYRICACEAE
84	Morella parvifolia (Benth.) C.Parra	Laurel, laurel de cera, laurel de monte	The main constituents of the essential oil analyzed by GC-MS were α-bisabolol (50.6–58.9%) and α-pinene (12.9–16.8%). No antibacterial activity was detected [53].	Branches	To treat general gynecological disorders [21].
85	Morella pubescens (Humb. & Bonpl. Ex Willd.) Wilbur	Laurel, laurel de cera	No information is reported in literature.	Branches	To treat general gynecological disorders [21].
86	Myrica parvifolia Benth.	Laurel	No information is reported in literature.	Branches, buds	To treat the fever or the cold caused by cold air or strong winds (locally known as mal aire (bad air) d, used against stomach colic, and to treat fainting during childbirth [4].
87	Myrica pubescens Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.	Millma laure (laurel lanudo)	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves	To treat the fever or the cold caused by cold air or strong winds (locally known as mal aire (bad air) d [4].
	MYRTACEAE
88	Psidium guajava L.	Guayaba	Meroterpenoids, a triterpenoid, terpenoid derivatives, and aromatic compounds, were isolated from the leaves. Meroterpenoids were evaluated for their antitumor and antifungal activities. Meroterpenoids psiguajadial D, guapsidial A, 4,5-diepipsidial A, guadial A, and guadial B were cytotoxic against five human tumor cell lines (HL-60, A-549, SMMC-7721, MCF-7, and SW-480). Guapsidial A was the most effective with an IC50 of 3.21–9.94 μmol·L−1 [54].	Fruits	It is used orally to treat disorders of the digestive system [21].
	ONAGRACEAE
89	Fuchsia harlingii Munz	Pena, pena de cerro	No information is reported in literature.	Flowers	Anti-inflammatory and sedative remedy [20]. It is used orally to treat neurological disorders [21].
90	Fuchsia hypoleuca I. M. Johnst	Sacha pena	No information is reported in literature.	Flowers	To treat neurological disorders [4].
91	Fuchsia loxensis Kunth	Pena, pena rosada	No information is reported in literature.	Flowers	Cardiotonic, febrifuge and sedative remedy [20]. It is used orally to treat neurological disorders [21].
92	Ludwigia nervosa (Poir.) H. Hara	Flor de reina, mejorana de huerta	No information is reported in literature.	Flowers	Anti-inflammatory and sedative remedy [20]. It is used orally to treat gynecological, nervous, and dermatological disorders [21].
93	Oenothera rosea L’Her. ex Aiton	Shullo, shullu colorado	The flavonoids: quercetrin and quercetin 3-O-β-D-allopyraNoside-3″,6″-diacetate were isolated from this plant [55].	Flowers, leaves, stalks	Anti-inflammatory, digestive, diuretic remedy, and to treat hepatic and kidney problems [16,21,22].
	ORCHIDACEAE
94	Epidendrum cochlidium Lindl.	Flor de cristo anaranjada	No information is reported in literature.	Flowers	To treat neurological disorders [4].
95	Epidendrum fimbriatum Kunth	Flor de cristo blanca, espíritu	No information is reported in literature.	Flowers	To treat internal tumors [4].
96	Epidendrum jamiesonis Rchb.f.	Flor de cristo violeta, maywa	No information is reported in literature.	Flowers	Used as an anti-inflammatory, sedative, diuretic, and hepatic remedy [20]. It is used orally to treat dermatological disorders [21].
	OXALIDACEAE
97	Oxalis corniculata L.	Chulco, trebol, trebol de huerta	Corniculatin A was isolated from an EtOAc extract of the whole plant, together with luteolin, luteolin-7-O-β-D-glucoside, and β-sitosterol-3-O-β-D-glucoside [56].	Whole plant	Against scurvy (scorbutic tongue) [4].
98	Oxalis peduncularis Kunth.	Chulco amarillo	No information is reported in literature.	Whole plant	To cure infection of the throat [4].
99	Oxalis spiralis Ruiz & Pav. ex G. Don	Chulco, cañitas, trigonella	No information is reported in literature.	Whole plant	To cure infection of the throat [4].
	PHYTOLACCACEAE
100	Phytolacca americana L.	Atuczara, hatun sara	No information is reported in literature.	Fruits	Against dandruff [4].
	PIPERACEAE
101	Peperomia blanda (Jacq.) Kunth	Sacha congona	Tetrahydrofuran lignans and flavones were isolated from the aerial parts. Some lignans exhibited high in vitro trypanocidal activity against epimastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi strain Y. [57].	Plant roots	It is used orally to treat neurological disorders [21].
102	Peperomia congona Sodiro	Congona, congona olorosa	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves, flowers, stalks	Anti-parasitic, antiperspirant, analgesic, cardiotonic, diuretic, hepatic, sedative, and to treat headache and insomnia [4].
103	Peperomia galioides Kunth	Tigresillo, sacha congona, congona de cerro	Eighty-four constituents were identified in the leaf essential oil analyzed by GC and GC-MS, which constituted more than 99% of the oil. The main components were safrole (42.3%) and epi-α-bisabolol (29.2%) [58].	Whole plant	Against aire de agua o vaho de agua (a supernatural disease caused by exposure to water-vapors from, for example, rivers, lakes, etc.) d [4,21].
104	Peperomia ilaloensis Sodiro	Congona de castilla, congona negra	No information is reported in literature.	Plant without roots	As an analgesic and sedative remedy [20]. It is used orally to treat neurological and sensorial disorders [21].
105	Peperomia peltigera C. DC. c	Pata conguyo, condorcol	No information is reported in literature.	Fruit, leaves	To treat headache, respiratory, and neurological problems [4,18].
106	Piper aduncum L.	Cordoncillo, matico de monte, monte del soldado	Bioactivity-guided fractionation of a leaf ethanolic extract afforded the dihydrochalcone adunchalcone, which was evaluated against promastigote forms of Leishmania amazonensis, L. braziliensis, L. shawi, and L. chagasi. The compound displayed EC50 values of 11.03, 26.70, and 11.26 μM, respectively, as well as selective indexes of 4.86, 2.01, 4.76, and 0.50, respectively. In contrast, adunchalcone exhibited weak activity against intracellular forms of L. amazonensis, compared to amphotericin B [59].	Leaves, stalks	To treat infections of external wounds, gastrointestinal, respiratory, and skin (inflammation, bruises) problems, and an anti-inflammatory [4,18,21,22].
107	Piper crassinervium Kunth	Guabiduca dulce	Bioactivity-guided fractionation of a leaf extract afforded three antifungal prenylated hydroquinones, together with two antifungal flavanones [60].	Leaves	As an analgesic and antiseptic remedy, and against stomachache [20]. It is used orally to treat hormonal and respiratory disorders [21].
	POLYGALACEAE
108	Polygala paniculata L.	Mentol, poligaga flores violetas	The xanthones 1-hydroxy-5-methoxy-2,3-methylenedioxy-xanthone and 1,5-dihydroxy-2,3-dimethoxyxanthone, together with the coumarin murragatin and the flavonol rutin were isolated from this plant [61].	Whole plant	It is used orally to treat musculoskeletal disorders [21].
	POLYGONACEAE
109	Rumex tolimensis Wedd	Turu	No information is reported in literature.	Stems, leaves	To promote hair growth and against dandruff [4].
	POLYPODIACEAE
110	Niphidium crassifolium (L) Lellinger	Calaguala, calawala	No information is reported in literature.	Roots	It is used orally to treat digestive and urological disorders [21].
	PTERIADACEAE
111	Adiantum poiretii Wikstr.	Culantrillo pata negra	No information is reported in literature.	Whole plant, leaves	To treat the cold [4]. It is used orally to treat gynecological disorders [21].
112	Adiantum raddianum C. Presl.	Culantrillo	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves	It is used orally to treat gynecological and urological disorders [21].
113	Cheilanthes bonariensis (Willd.) Proctor.	Helecho congona	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves	It is used orally to treat gynecological disorders [21].
114	Notholaena sulphurea (Cav.) J. Sm.	Grano de oro	The main constituent of the yellow frond exudate of this fern was identified as 3,5,2′-trihydroxy-7-methoxy-8-acetoxy flavone. The 5,2′-dihydroxy-7,8-dimethoxy flavone was also found, along with some common flavonoids. The white form of the fern produced three dihydrochalcones that were accompanied by some kaempferol methyl ethers and apigenin-7-methyl ether. The 3-acetoxy as well as the 3-butyryloxy and the 4′-butyryloxy derivatives of 7-methyl aromadendrin were also identified [62].	Leaves	It is used orally to treat gynecological disorders [21].
115	Pityrogramma ebenea (L) Proctor.	Doradilla plateada, luna plateada	2′,6′-Dihydroxy-4,3′-dimethoxy-4′,5′-dioxymethylenedihydrochalcone was identified in the leaves [63].	Leaves	It is used orally to treat gynecological disorders [21].
116	Pityrogramma calomelanos (L.) Link	Doradilla del sol	An isolated new pigment was assigned the structure of an 8- or 6-dihydrocinnamoyl-5,7-dihydroxy-4-phenyl-2H-1-benzopyran-2-one. From the same fern, two other phenyl-benzopyran-2-one-derivatives and a 2-phenyl-γ-pyron (ol)-ring derivative were isolated [64].	Leaves	It is used orally to treat gynecological disorders [21].
117	Trachypteris induta (Maxon) R.M. Tryon & A.F. Tryon	Pata de gallina	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves	It is used orally to treat gynecological disorders [21].
	RANUNCULACEAE
118	Clematis haenkeana C. Presl.	Zarzaparrilla roja	No information is reported in literature.	Buds	To cure sore teeth [4].
	ROSACEAE
119	Alchemilla aphanoides Mutis ex L f.	Saucillo	No information is reported in literature.	Branches	It is used orally to treat neurological disorders [21].
120	Hesperomeles obtusifolia (Pers.) Lindl	Quique, cerote	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves	Pain relief (joints, head, throat), and to cure gastrointestinal, respiratory, and renal-urological disorders [18].
121	Margyricarpus pinnatus (Lam.) Kuntze	Perlilla, nigua	The main constituents of the leaf essential oil were limonene (57.8%) and α-pinene (9.7%), whereas sabinene (24.2%), limonene (9.1%), and pinocarvone (9.7%) were the main components of the fruit oil [65].	Plant without roots	It is used orally to treat respiratory and dermatological disorders [21].
122	Prunus serotina Ehrh.	Capulí	Bio-guided fractionation of a methanolic extract afforded 2,3-dihydro-5,7-dihydroxy-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one (naringenin, NGN), 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoic acid, and 1,3,5-trimethoxybenzene. NGN exhibited in vitro activity, in a time-concentration-dependent manner (EC50 = 89.3 μM]. Furthermore, NGN at a dose of 376.1 μmol/kg, displayed in vivo efficacy against Taenia crassiceps cysts similar to albendazole at 188.4 μmol/kg [66].	Leaves	In postpartum baths and to cure bone pain [4].
123	Rubus urticifolius Poir	Mora silvestre	No information is reported in literature.	Bud and flowers	To cure gangrene [4].
	RUBIACEAE
124	Cinchona pubescens Vahl	Cascarilla, cascarilla roja	Seven known anthraquinones, alizarin-2-methylether, anthragallol-1,2-dimethylether, purpurin, purpurin-1-methylether, 1-hydroxy-2-hydroxymethylanthraquinone, 2-hydroxy-1,3,4-trimethoxyanthraquinone, and 2,5-(or 3,5-)dihydroxy-1,3,4-(or 1,2,4-)trimethoxyanthraquinone, together with five new anthraquinones, 2-hydroxy-1,3,4,6-(or 1,3,4,7-)tetramethoxyanthraquinone, 1,6-(or 1,7-)dihydroxy-2-methylanthraquinone, 5-hydroxypurpurin-1-methyl ether, 4,6-(or 4,7-)dihydroxy-2,7-(or 2,6-)dimethoxyanthraquinone, and 6,7-dihydroxy-1-methoxy-2-methylanthraquinone were isolated from callus cultures [67].	Bark	It is used orally to treat respiratory problems [21,22].
	SAPOTACEAE
125	Pouteria caimito (Ruiz & Pav.) radlk	Caimito	Three triterpenoids, Δ14–taraxene–3β–ol acetate, Δ14–taraxene–3–one, and Δ14–taraxene–3β–ol, together with β–sitosterol, were isolated from the bark [68].	Leaves	The latex is used to remove subcutaneous larvae. The leaf infusion is used to treat skin infections [19].
	SCROPHULARIACEAE
126	Pedicularis incurva Benth.	Pimpinela del cerro	No information is reported in literature.	Branches	To treat the cold [4].
	SOLANACEAE
127	Brugmansia candida Pers.	Floripondio blanco, guando, guando blanco	The alkaloids, scopolamine and anisodamine, were produced in a modified bioreactor culture system [69].	Flowers, leaves	To cure the fever or the cold caused by cold air or strong winds (locally known as mal aire (bad air) d [4,21,22].
128	Brugmansia sanguinea (Ruiz & Pav.) D. Don	Floripòndio rojo, guando rojo	No information is reported in literature.	Flowers, leaves	The plant is rubbed to treat culture-related syndromes [21].
129	Cestrum mariquitense Kunth	Sauco negro	No information is reported in literature.	Branches	It is used to treat general disorders of the circulatory system [21].
130	Cestrum racemosum Ruiz & Pav	Sauco blanco	No information is reported in literature.	Branches	It is used to treat general culture-related syndromes [21,22].
131	Cestrum sendtnerianum C. Mart.	Sauco negro	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves and flowers	To cure fever, headache, and postpartum relapses [4].
132	Cyphomandra betacea (Cav.)	Tomate de árbol	No information is reported in literature.	Fruits	To cure throat infection [4].
133	Lycopersicon hirsutum Dunal	Monte de guishco, monte de gallinazo, monte de ushco	No information is reported in literature.	Branches, leaves	It is used to treat general culture-related syndromes [22].
134	Physalis peruviana L. c	Uvilla, uchuva, uvilla lanuda	The UPLC-ESI-MS/MS metabolic profile of an EtOAc extract of fruits cultivated in Egypt allowed the identification of several phenolic compounds. Moreover, the EtOAc extract showed remarkable α-amylase, β-glucosidase, and lipase inhibitory effects. In an in vivo antihyperglycemic test with streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats, the EtOAc extract decreased the blood glucose level, prevented the reduction of body weight, and improved serum indicators of kidney injury [70].	Fruits	To lower cholesterol [4].
135	Solanum americanum Mill.	Mortiño, hierba mora	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves, fruits	Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, digestive, febrifuge, sedative, to treat respiratory diseases, the fever, the cold, pneumonia, internal infections, and kidney problems [4,16,21,22].
136	Solanum juglandifolium Dunal	Matico	No information is reported in literature.	Flowers	Against air wáter d [4].
137	Solanum nigrescens M.	Hierba mora	The antifungal activity of the extracts was attributed to the presence of a spirostanol glycoside, cantalasaponin-3 [71].	Leaves	Pain relief (joints, head, throat), and to cure fever, gastrointestinal, respiratory, skin (inflammation, bruises), renal-urological, and anti-inflammatory diseases [4,21].
138	Solanum oblongifolium Dunal, Solan.	Turpe, tululuche, mata perro	No information is reported in literature.	Branches, leaves	To cure the fever or the cold caused by cold air or strong winds (locally known as mal aire (bad air) d, and dislocation [4].
139	Solanum pimpinellifolium L.	Monte de gallinazo	No information is reported in literature.	Branches	To treat general culture-related syndromes [21].
	TILIACEAE
140	Triumfetta althaeoides Lam.	Abrojo, achotillo, cadillo	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves	To treat liver and kidney inflammations [4,22].
141	Triumfetta semitriloba Jacq.	Abrojo, cadillo, monstrante	No information is reported in literature.	Leaves	To treat general urological diseases [21].
	VALERIANACEAE
142	Valeriana pyramidalis Kunth	Valeriana	No information is reported in literature.	Roots	It is used orally to treat neurological problems [21].
143	Valeriana microphylla Kunth	Valeriana de cerro	Five valepotriates, i.e., valtrate, isovaltrate, diavaltrate, acevaltrate, and didrovaltrate, together with nardostaquine, and two lignans, (+)-1-hydroxypiNoresiNol and pinoresinol were isolated and identified [72].	Roots	To cure nerves [4].
	VERBENACEAE
144	Aloysia citriodora Paláu	Cedrón	The effect of continuous and pulsed ultrasound pre-treatments (15, 30, and 45 min), followed by conventional hydrodistillation, on the characteristics of isolated essential oils (EOs) from dried leaves of A. citriodora was evaluated for the first time. Moreover, the chemical composition, the antibacterial and antioxidant activities, as well as the contents in heavy metals (iron, copper, lead, arsenic, and cadmium) of the Eos were determined [73].	Leaves	Pain relief (joints, head, throat), anti-inflammatory, and to treat gastrointestinal and respiratory problems [4].
145	Aloysia triphylla (L’Hér.) Britton. *	Cedrón	The EO contained myrcenone (36.50%), α-thujone (13.10%), lippifoli-1(6)-en-5-one (8.87%), and limonene (6.87%) as the main components [74].	Leaves, flowers, stalks	Anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, anti-neuralgic, analgesic, cardiotonic, digestive, stomach tonic, diuretic, and to cure the fever, headache, the cold, and colic [4,21,22].
146	Phyla strigulosa (M. Martens & Galeotti) Moldenke	Sistalgina/novalgina	No information is reported in literature.	Whole plant	To treat stomachache [22].
147	Verbena litoralis Kunth	Verbena	Phytochemical tests revealed the presence of iridoid glycosides, flavonoids, phenylpropanoid derivatives, phenylethanoid derivatives, cinnamic acid derivatives, and triterpenes. The extract was classified ‘safe’ (category 5), according to the OECD guidelines, in acute treatments [75].	Flowers	To cure plagues and headache, body malaise, infection of the throat, respiratory and skin diseases (inflammation, bruises), flu, and pain relief (joints, head, throat) [4,18,21,22].
	VIOLACEAE
148	Viola arguta Willd. & Schult. ex Roem.	Violeta de campo flor roja, pucango	No information is reported in literature.	Flowers	To cure nerve problems [4].
149	Viola dombeyana DC.	Violeta de campo	No information is reported in literature.	Flowers	To cure nerve problems [4].
	VISCACEAE
150	Dendrophthora fastigiata Kuijt.	Suelda pequeña	No information is reported in literature.	Whole plant	To treat fractured and dislocated bones [4].
151	Phoradendron parietarioides Trel.	Suelda grande, matapalo, solda-solda, suelda	No information is reported in literature.	Whole plant	To treat fractured and dislocated bones [4].
	WINTERACEAE
152	Drimys granadensis L. f.	Cascarilla	A total of 85 components were identified in the leaf EO analyzed by GC and GC-MS. Germacrene D (14.7%), sclarene (9.5%), α-cadinol (7.3%), longiborneol acetate (6.3%), drimenol (4.2%), (Z)-β-ocimene (3, 4.2%), α-pinene (3.2%), and β-elemene (2.7%) were the main components of the oil. The EO was also tested against eight bacteria strains using the Kirby–Bauer disk-diffusion method. Most of the tested Gram-positive bacteria were susceptible to the oil, while the Gram-negative bacteria were not [76].	Bark	To cure sore teeth [4].

^a The names of endemic plants have been underlined. ^b Data obtained by research groups working in countries other than Ecuador. ^c The plant is also cultivated. ^d A supernatural disease.

Table 2.

Botanical and vernacular names, used part(s), and traditional uses of introduced medicinal plants.

No.	Botanical Name	Vernacular Name	Used Part(s) of the Plant	Traditional Uses
	AGAVACEAE
1	Agave americana L. a,b	Cabuya, penco, chaguarquero	Stems	To heal bone fractures and dislocations [4].
	AIZOACEAE
2	Mesembryanthemum elegans L.	Condorcoles pequeño	Leaves	To treat nerves and headache [4].
	AMARANTHACEAE
3	Aerva sanguinolenta (L.) Blume a,b	Escancel	Whole plant without roots	It is used in topical applications, orally, and in poultices and washings to treat general disorders of the dermatological, digestive, gynecological, urinary, and nervous systems, and to cure renal problems and culture-related syndromes [18,21].
4	Dysphania ambrosioides (L) Mosyakin & Clemants a,b	Paico	Branches	Branches are rubbed to treat disorders of the digestive system and culture-related syndromes [21,22].
	APIACEAE
5	Anethum graveolens L. a,b	Eneldo	Whole plant	Pain relief (joints, head, throat), and to treat gastrointestinal, respiratory, skin (inflammation, bruises), and renal-urological problems [18].
6	Apium graveolens L. a,b	Apio	Leaves, stalks	Pain relief (joints, head, throat), and to treat gastrointestinal, respiratory, and anti-inflammatory problems [18].
7	Apium leptophyllum (Pers.) F. Muell. b	Culantrillo blanco	Whole plant	It is used to treat the cold [4].
8	Coriandrum sativum L. a,b	Cilantro, culantro	Whole plant	To treat the abdominal pain related to menstruation [4].
9	Cyclospermum leptophyllum (Pers.) Sprague ex Britton & P. Wilson b	Culantrillo, cominillo	Branches	It is used orally to treat disorders of the digestive system [21].
10	Daucus carota L. a,b	Zanahoria	Leaves	The juice is used to treat gastritis [4].
11	Foeniculum vulgare Mill. a,b	Hinojo, eneldo	Leaves, whole plant	It is used orally to treat disorders of the digestive system, and as an anti-inflammatory, a relaxant, against conjunctivitis, indigestion, gastritis, menstrual colic, diabetes, anticancer, and to increase the breast milk [4,16,21].
12	Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss a,b	Perejil	Whole plant, leaves, stalks	Pain relief (joints, head, throat), and to treat gastrointestinal, respiratory, and neurological disorders [4,18].
13	Pimpinella anisum L. b	Anís	Seeds	Pain relief (joints, head, throat), to treat gastrointestinal problems, and as a febrifuge [18].
	ASPHODELACEAE
14	Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. b	Sábila	Leaves	Pain relief (joints, head, throat), and to treat gastrointestinal, respiratory, and renal-urological problems. Topical applications are used to treat skin problems [18,21,22].
	ASTERACEAE
15	Ageratum conyzoides L. b	Canayuyo, pedorrera, hierba de chivo	Whole plant	To heal gangrene and infections. It is also used orally to treat disorders of the digestive system [4,21].
16	Cotula australis (Sieber ex Spreng.) Hook.f.	Chichira sombrerito	Whole plant	To decrease disease relapses after recovery (locally known as recaída in Spanish) [4].
17	Cynara cardunculus L. a,b	Alcachofa	Fruits	It is used orally to treat disorders of the hormonal system [21].
18	Matricaria chamomilla L. a,b	Manzanilla	Whole plant	Pain relief (joints, head, throat), anti-inflammatory, to treat gastritis, gastrointestinal and respiratory problems, skin inflammation, and bruises [4,18,22].
19	Matricaria recutita L. a,b	Manzanilla	Flowers, leaves, stalks	Anti-inflammatory, sedative, anti-flatulence, anthelmintic, analgesic, carminative, digestive, febrifuge, and used against cramps, insomnia, wounds, stomach pain, and burns. Used as a stimulant tonic. It is also used in gargles to treat disorders of the respiratory system [16,21].
20	Sigesbeckia mandoni Schult. Bip.	Sacha jícama	Leaves	To treat diarrhea in children from 1 to 6 months of age [4].
21	Sonchus oleraceus L. a,b	Cerraja, serraja, Cachicerraja	Whole plant	To heal body malaise, pain relief (joints, head, throat), and to treat gastrointestinal, respiratory, and renal-urological problems, skin inflammation, and bruises [4,18].
22	Tagetes erecta L. a,b	Killo rosa, flor de muerto, calendula	Branches, flowers	Against vaho de agua c (a supernatural disease, presumed to be due to exposure to water-vapors). The plant is rubbed to heal culture-related syndromes [4,21].
23	Tagetes patula L. a,b	Arrayosa	Flowers	The plant is rubbed to heal culture-related syndromes [22].
24	Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch. Bip. b	Santa María	Whole plant	To cure fear in children [4,21,22].
25	Taraxacum officinale F. H. Wigg. b	Diente de león, taraxaco	Whole plant	To cure gastritis and ulcer, and for pain relief (joints, head, throat). To treat gastrointestinal, respiratory, and renal-urological problems, skin inflammation, and bruises [4,18,21].
	BALSAMINACEAE
26	Impatiens balsamina L. a,b	Amor constante, begonia	Flowers	In postpartum relapse [4].
	BORAGINACEAE
27	Borago officinalis L. a,b	Borraja	Flowers, leaves, stalks	Anti-inflammatory, anti-flu, expectorant, febrifuge, to enhance blood circulation, sudorific, astringent, diuretic, anti-hypercholesterolemic, analgesic, antidiarrheal, antitussive and emmenagogue; to treat hepatic pain, conjunctivitis, burnings, headache, and coughs; to decrease disease relapses after recovery (locally known as recaída in Spanish); to cure gastrointestinal, respiratory, and renal-urological problems [16,18,20,21,22].
28	Symphytum officinale L. b	Consuelda, suelda	Leaves	It is used to treat musculoskeletal disorders [21].
	BRASSICACEAE
29	Brassica oleracea ‘Acephala’ a,b	Col silvestre	Stems	To cure liver and kidney inflammations and infections, and postpartum infections [4].
30	Matthiola incana (L.) R. Br. a,b	Alhelí, alelí	Flowers	It is used orally to treat neurological disorders [21].
31	Nasturtium officinale R. Br. a,b	Berro chico, berro negro	Leaves, whole plant	To cure body malaise, headache, flu, and pneumonia [4].
32	Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (L.) Hayek	Berro	Plant without roots	It is used orally to cure disorders of the circulatory system [21].
	CACTACEAE
33	Echinopsis pachanoi (Britton & Rose) Friedrich & G. D. Rowley	San pedrillo, san Pedro, aguacolla	Stems	In sorcery rituals c [4,22].
34	Trichocereus macrogonus (Salm-Dyck) Riccob.	San pedrillo	Wood	To treat culture-related syndromes [21].
	CAMPANULACEAE
35	Lobelia cf. decurrens Cav. a	Cholo valiente, cararango	Branches	To treat culture-related syndromes [21,22].
	CAPRIFOLIACEAE
36	Sambucus nigra L. a,b	Tilo, sauco tilo	Flowers	Anti-flu, to treat bronchitis, febrifuge, antidiarrheal, sedative, antitussive, to cure nerves, colds, coughs, and headaches [16,20,21,22].
	CARYOPHYLLACEAE
37	Dianthus caryophyllus L. a,b	Clavel	Flowers	Anti-inflammatory, anti-flu, analgesic, anticough, sedative, cardiotonic, and to cure nerves and stomach pain [4,16,20,21].
	CHENOPODIACEAE
38	Chenopodium album L. b	Paico, palitaria, palitaria blanca	Branches or buds	To treat blows, dislocations, and sprains [4,21].
39	Chenopodium ambrosioides L. b	Paico	Whole plant	To treat gallbladder stones and gastrointestinal problems [4,18].
40	Tradescantia zebrina Hort. Ex Bosse b	Hoja de la plata, lazo de amor, oreja de tigre, zebrina, calcha	Whole plant	To prevent postpartum relapse [4,21].
	CRASSULACEAE
41	Kalanchoe gastonis Bonnieri b	Dulcamara, mala madre	Leaves	To treat general digestive disorders [21].
	CUCURBITACEAE
42	Cucurbita ficifolia Bouchè, Verh. a,b	Alcayata, zambo	Whole plant	To treat blows [4].
43	Cucurbita maxima D’uchense ex Lam. a,b	Zapallo	Leaves	To cure diarrhea in children from 1 to 6 months of age [4].
44	Cucurbita pepo L. a,b	Sambo	Latex	To treat general dermatological disorders [21].
	CUPRESSACEAE
45	Cupressus lusitanica Mill. a,b	Ciprés	Fruits	To control baldness [4].
	FABACEAE
46	Medicago sativa L. a,b	Alfalfa	Leaves	To treat circulatory problems, especially lack of sensitivity at the body extremities (e.g., hands, feet, and/or toes) [4].
47	Vicia faba L. a,b	Haba	Leaves	To treat headache [4].
	GENTIANACEAE
48	Centaurium erythraea Rafr. b	Pedorrera, canchalagua	Whole plant	To cure body malaise [4,21,22].
	GERANIACEAE
49	Erodium cf. cicutarium (L) L’Hér. Ex Aiton b	Agujilla, aujilla	Branches	It is used orally to treat general disorders and culture-related syndromes [21].
50	Pelargonium graveolens L’Hér. ex Aiton. a,b	Esencia de rosa	Flowers, leaves, stalks	Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, febrifuge, antidiabetic, antidiarrheal, to treat gallbladder and liver problems, a digestive, to cure gastric ulcers, wounds, burns, respiratory diseases, jaundice, infertility, and urinary stones. It is also used to cure vaginal infections before and after childbirth [4,16,21,22].
51	Pelargonium odoratissimum (L.) L’ Hér. a,b	Malva olorosa	Flowers, leaves, stalks, branches	Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, carminative and tonic, diuretic, antidiarrheal, and to cure colic, neurological and heart problems, and children’s colds [4,16,20,21,22].
52	Pelargonium zonale (L.) L’Hér. a	Geranio	Flowers	To cure vaginal infections before and after childbirth [4,22].
	JUGLANDACEAE
53	Juglans nigra L. a,b	Nogal	Leaves	To cure gastrointestinal and renal-urological problems [18].
	LAMIACEAE
54	Mentha piperita L. a,b	Menta, menta negra	Leaves, stalks, branches	Analgesic, antidiarrheal, anti-flu, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, carminative, digestive, tonic, and against stomach pain, stomach colic, to cure indigestion and the cold; pain relief (joints, head, throat); to treat gastrointestinal, respiratory, skin (inflammation, bruises), and neurological problems [4,18,20,21,22].
55	Mentha pulegium L. a,b	Menta de castilla	Branches	To treat stomach colic, indigestion, and the cold [4].
56	Mentha spicata L. a,b	Hierba buena, menta, menta negra	Leaves	Anti-inflammatory, anti-flu, analgesic, digestive, antitussive, carminative, febrifuge, to cure stomach colic and the cold; pain relief (joints, head, throat); to treat gastrointestinal, respiratory, and renal-urological problems [4,18,20,21,22].
57	Ocimum basilicum L. a,b	Albahaca, albahaca blanca	Flower, leaves	Anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, anti-flatulence, analgesic, febrifuge, digestive, stimulant of lactation, relaxant, to treat headache, coughs, heart problems, nerves, gastritis, high blood pressure, internal infections, pain relief (joints, head, throat); to treat gastrointestinal and skin (inflammation, bruises) problems [16,18,21].
58	Origanum majorana L. a,b	Mejorana	Leaves	Pain relief (joints, head, throat) [18,22].
59	Origanum x majoricum Camb. a,b	Orégano, oregano de castilla	Whole plant without roots	To treat digestive problems [21].
60	Origanum vulgare L. a,b	Orégano	Whole plant	Pain relief (joints, head, throat), and to treat gastrointestinal and renal-urological problems [4,22].
61	Plectranthus unguentarius Codd	Oreganón, orégano grande	Leaves	It is used orally to treat digestive problems [21].
62	Rosmarinus officinalis L. a,b	Romero	Branches, whole plant	To cure the fever or the cold caused by cold air or strong winds (locally known as mal aire (bad air) c. Pain relief (joints, head, throat); to cure gastrointestinal, skin (inflammation, bruises), and neurological problems [4,18,21,22].
63	Salvia tiliifolia Vahl. b	Santa María	Whole plant without roots	The plant is rubbed to treat culture-related syndromes [21].
64	Thymus vulgaris L. a,b	Tomillo	Branches, leaves	To cure indigestion, gastrointestinal, and renal-urological problems; pain relief (joints, head, throat) [4,18,21].
	LAURACEAE
65	Cinnamomum verum J. Presl b	Canela	Bark	Pain relief (joints, head, throat), and to treat gastrointestinal and respiratory problems [18].
	LILIACEAE (AMARYLLIDACEAE)
66	Allium sativum L. a,b	Ajo	Garlic, bulbs	To cure coughs; pain relief (joints, head, throat), and to treat gastrointestinal and respiratory problems [4,18].
	LINACEAE
67	Linum usitatissimum L. a,b	Linaza	Seeds, leaves, stalk	It is used to treat general disorders of the digestive and urological systems [15,22]. Anti–inflammatory, digestive, hepatic, diuretic, to treat stomachache and kidney problems, inflammation of liver and kidney, and gastrointestinal and respiratory problems [4,16,18,20].
	MALVACEAE
68	Alcea rosea L. a,b	Malva goma, malva rosa	Flowers, bark	To treat liver and kidney pain, and used as a diuretic, analgesic, and depurative [4,20,21].
69	Corchorus siliquosus L	Té	Whole plant	To treat general digestive disorders [22].
70	Lavatera arborea L. a	Malva, puka malva	Flowers	To treat liver and kidney inflammations [4].
71	Malva arborea (L.) Webb & Berthel. a	Malva altea, malva blanca, malva alta	Flowers	Anti-inflammatory, antidiarrheal, febrifuge, depurative, diuretic, tonic, digestive, to treat obesity, constipation, and insect bites [4,21].
72	Malva parviflora L. a,b	Malva blanca	Branches, flowers	To treat general gynecological and urological disorders [21].
	MORACEAE
73	Ficus carica L. a,b	Higo, breva, higuera	Leaves	It is used orally to treat gynecological disorders [21].
	MYRTACEAE
74	Corymbia citriodora (Hook.) K.D. Hill & LAS. Johnson a,b	Eucalipto oloroso, eucalipto aromático	Branches	It is used for inhalations to treat disorders of the respiratory system [21].
75	Myrtus communis L. b	Arrayán	Leaves, fruits	To treat fever, gastrointestinal, respiratory, and skin (inflammation, bruises) problems [18].
76	Syzygium aromaticum L. a,b	Clavo de olor	Flower buds, peduncles	Pain relief (joints, head, throat), and to cure gastrointestinal problems [18].
	OLEACEAE
77	Jasminum grandiflorum L. a,b	Jazmín	Flowers	To treat neurological disorders [22].
	ONAGRACEAE
78	Fuchsia magellanica Lam. a,b	Pena-pena, pena, pena morada, zarcillo	Flowers	Sedative, disinfectant, wound healer, and relaxant [19,20,21].
	PINACEAE
79	Pinus radiata D. Don a,b	Pino	Fruits	Against asthma [4].
	PLANTAGINACEAE
80	Plantago major L. a,b	Llantén	Whole plant, leaves	Anti-inflammatory, antihemorrhagic, digestive, wound healer, diuretic, to treat liver problems, insomnia, insect bites, liver and kidney inflammation; pain relief (joints, head, throat), and for gastrointestinal, respiratory, skin (inflammation, bruises), renal-urological, and neurological problems [4,18,21,22].
	POACEAE
81	Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. b	Grama dulce, paja	Whole plant without roots	It is used orally to treat urological and gynecological disorders [21].
82	Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf. a,b	Hierba Luisa, limonaria	Leaves	Anti-flatulence, analgesic, digestive, sedative, expectorant, spasmolytic, relaxant and diuretic, anti-inflammatory, to treat high pressure, nerves, gastritis, diarrhea, jaundice, insomnia and the cold, gastrointestinal, respiratory, skin (inflammation, bruises), and neurological problems; pain relief (joints, head, throat) [14,21,22].
83	Zea mays L. a,b	Maíz (pelo de choclo)	Hair of dried maize, flowers	Against diarrhea and general malaise; pain relief (joints, head, throat), anti-inflammatory; to treat gastrointestinal, respiratory, renal-urological, and neurological problems, skin inflammation, and bruises [4,18,21,22].
	POLYGONACEAE
84	Rumex obtusifolius L. b	Lengua de vaca, sacha-gula	Leaves, flowers	Pain relief (joints, head, throat), and to cure skin inflammation and bruises; anti-inflammatory [18].
	ROSACEAE
85	Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl. a,b	Níspero, míspero, níspero del japón	Leaves	It is used orally to treat urinary disorders [21,22].
86	Poterium sanguisorba L. b	Pimpinela	Whole plant	To treat neurological problems [4].
87	Rosa x alba L. a,b	Rosa blanca	Flowers	To treat infections and flu [22].
88	Rosa centifolia L.	Rosa roja	Flowers	To treat neurological problems [4,22].
89	Rosa cymosa Tratt. a,b	Rosa	Flowers	It is used orally to treat gynecological and urological disorders [21].
90	Sanguisorba minor subsp. Muricata (Bonnier & Layens) Briq a,b	Pimpinela	Leaves	It is used orally to treat neurological problems [21].
	RUTACEAE
91	Citrus x junos Siebold ex Tanaka a,b	Naranja agria	Fruits	It is used orally to treat dermatological problems [21].
92	Citrus limetta Risso a,b	Lima dulce	Fruits	To prevent high blood pressure [22].
93	Citrus x limonum Risso a,b	Limón	Seeds	It is used orally to treat dental pain [22].
94	Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck. a,b	Hojas de naranja	Leaves	Antispasmodic, relaxant, antidiarrheal; used as hair tonic; used to treat insomnia, the cold and kidney problems [16].
95	Ruta graveolens L. a,b	Ruda	Branches, flowers, whole plant	To treat headaches, bad air c, fainting during childbirth, gastrointestinal and neurological problems; pain relief (joints, head, throat) [4,18,21,22].
	SIMAROUBACEAE
96	Castela tortuosa Liebm. b	Hierba de perro	Leaves, flowers	Pain relief (joints, head, throat), and to treat gastrointestinal problems [18].
	TILIACEAE
97	Tilia platyphyllos Scop. a	Tilo	Leaves, flowers	To cure respiratory, neurological, and reproductive diseases; anti-inflammatory [18].
	URTICACEAE
98	Urtica dioica L. b	Ortiga, ortiga de monte	Whole plant	Pain relief (joints, head, throat), and to cure gastrointestinal, neurological diseases [18,21].
99	Urtica urens L. b	Chine, chini, ortiga común	Whole plant	To treat intestinal infection and blows [4,21].
	VALERIANACEAE
100	Valeriana officinalis L. b	Valeriana, guasilla	Leaves	To cure gastrointestinal and neurological diseases [4].
	VERBENACEAE
101	Phyla dulcis (Trevir.) Moldenke a,b	Buscapina	Whole plant	To treat stomachache [22].
102	Phyla scaberrima (A. Juss. Ex Pers.) Moldenke b	Buscapina, novalgina	Whole plant without roots	It is used orally to treat digestive problems [4,21].
	VIOLACEAE
103	Viola odorata L. a,b	Violeta, violeta de huerta, violeta de jardín	Flowers	To cure coughs [4,21,22].
104	Viola tricolor L. b	Pensamiento	Flowers	Analgesic, antidiarrheal, anti-flu, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, diuretic, febrifuge; to cure the hoarseness and headache; to treat kidney, skin, heart, and nerve problems [4,18,21].
	ZINGIBERACEAE
105	Hedychium coronarium J.Köning a,b	Jazmín de río, caña agria	Stems	It is used orally to treat problems of the urinary system [21,22].

^a The plant is also cultivated. ^b The phytochemistry and biological activities of the plant have already been investigated by scholars working in countries other than Ecuador. ^c A supernatural disease.

2. Research Strategies and Literature Sources

The data included in this paper have been retrieved using the keywords “medicinal plants from Ecuador”, “ethnomedicine”, “traditional uses”, and “medicinal plants” in different databases including PubMed, SciFinder, Springer, Elsevier, Wiley, Web of Science, and Google Scholar.

Plants with incorrect botanical classification or without the name of the species have not been included in Table 1. The plant scientific names were checked with the database WFO (2021): World Flora Online, published on the Internet at http://www.worldfloraonline.org [23] (accessed on 23 December 2021); Tropicos.org. Missouri Botanical Garden at https://www.tropicos.org/home [24] (accessed on 28 December 2021); Global Biodiversity Information Facility Ecuador at https://www.gbif.org/es/country/EC/summary [25] (accessed on 29 December 2021), and Enciclopedia de las Plantas Utiles del Ecuador [8]. Information from master’s and doctoral dissertations were not considered for the preparation of this review.

3. Ethnobotanical and Ethnopharmacological Data

A total of 257 medicinal plants are listed in Table 1 and Table 2, divided by 78 botanical families. They include 141 native and 11 endemic species (Table 1), and 105 species introduced from different regions of the world (Table 2). For each taxon appearing in the Tables, the botanical and the common names, the used part(s), as well as the traditional uses, are also reported.

The botanical family with the highest number of medicinal plants listed in Table 1 and Table 2 is Asteraceae (10.5%) with 15 native, 1 endemic, and 11 introduced species, followed by Lamiaceae (5.8%) with 4 native and 11 introduced species, and Solanaceae (5.1%) with 13 native species. The other botanical families contain from 1 to 11 species, accounting from 0.4 to 4.3% of the total number of taxa.

The use of endemic and native medicinal species exceeds by far the use of introduced medicinal species. On the other hand, introduced plants have an extensive use in the traditional medicine of Ecuador. This finding has been explained by the great abundance or accessibility (availability hypothesis), the ability to cure pathological conditions that are not treated by native plants (diversification hypothesis), or as a result of many different simultaneous uses (versatility hypothesis) [26].

The fact that Asteraceae (Compositae) is the family with the highest number of medicinal taxa is not unexpected because it is one of the largest flowering plant families, consisting of over 32,000 known species in over 1900 genera distributed worldwide [23,24]. All species are good sources of inulin, a natural polysaccharide with strong prebiotic properties. They have also demonstrated high antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activities, as well as diuretic and wound-healing properties. A few taxa also contain cytotoxic metabolites. These pharmacological effects are attributed to a range of phytochemical compounds, including polyphenols, phenolic acids, flavonoids, polyenes, alkaloids, sesquiterpene lactones, diterpenoids, triterpenes, and essential oils [77]. Species belonging to Lamiaceae are known for the contents of aromatic volatile compounds, whereas the characteristic chemical constituents of Solanaceae species are biologically active alkaloids of the steroidal, tropane, and nicotine types [77].

Some species belonging to the Lycopodiaceae family are traditionally used to treat supernatural diseases and to perform religious rituals due to their psychoactive effects [78]. The extracts contain alkaloids of the Lycopodium type and exhibited an interesting cholinesterase activity [3]. Therefore, related Lycopodiaceae species reported in Table 1, such as H. sellifolia, L. weberbaueri, and H. austroecuadorica deserve to be studied from a phytochemical and pharmacological point of view, especially in the search for natural remedies for age-related neurodegenerative diseases [79]. In this context, it is worthwhile to note that a few endemic species belonging to the genus Fuchsia, such as F. harlingii, F. hypoleuca, and F. loxensis, which are used in the traditional medicine for neurological treatments, have not yet received adequate scientific attention by scholars of natural products.

Other still uninvestigated native plants which might offer interesting research opportunities belong, inter alia, to the families of Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Ericaceae, Orchidaceae, Piperaceae, and Solanaceae, which are well known sources of specialized metabolites with various chemical structures and different biological activities [77].

On the other hand, several species of the genus Amaranthus are traditionally cultivated in Central and South America, where local people use seeds or leaves as food and herbal remedies [80]. Therefore, the traditional uses of A. caudatus, A. cruentus, A. hybridus, and A. quitensis deserve to be validated with scientific evidence to enhance their sustainable use as a food supplement or in phytopharmaceutical products. Another plant of promising scientific and practical interest is Phyla strigulosa (family Verbenaceae). In fact, in preliminary investigations, we have found that it can be used to prepare non-caloric sweeteners.

The plants reported in Table 1 and Table 2 are most widely used as analgesic, antidiarrheal, anti-flu, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, carminative, sedative, digestive, tonic, and pain relief (joints, head, throat, stomach) remedies, against colic, to cure the cold, and to treat gastrointestinal, respiratory, dermatological, renal-urological, gynecological, and neurological problems. The frequency of these uses clearly reflects the spread of these diseases in Indigenous communities. In this regard, it is important to highlight the limited number of plants used against cancer, while it is quite stunning to note the large number of species used to cure nervous and general neurological problems. It would be interesting to investigate the causes of such diseases in a relatively poor country such as Ecuador, because these diseases are usually considered typical of affluent societies.

Several plants listed in Table 1 and Table 2, which belong to different genera and even to different families, are often used to treat the same disease or the same group of diseases. This finding may suggest that compounds with different chemical structures display the same bioactivity or that compounds of the same type occur in the different species.

Most plants reported in this review are used against well-defined pathologies, for which appropriate in vitro biological tests and even clinical trials can be executed to confirm the effectiveness of the positive effects and to direct the isolation of bioactive compounds. Other plants are, instead, used against ill-defined diseases, such as those employed to cure ‘culture-related syndromes’, or ‘a restless and confused child’, or a generic ‘disease of the body’. Even harder to decipher, under the perspective of western medicine, are the so-called supernatural and magical diseases such as the ‘mal aire (bad air)’, ‘air water’ or ‘evil eye’. However, these beliefs are part of the cultural heritage of this population and are, therefore, of great anthropological interest.

4. Conclusions

We believe that a critical evaluation of the ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological information contained in this review may give several opportunities to develop innovative research and to design practical applications of several traditional plants of Ecuador, with benefits not only to the Indigenous communities but to the entire population of the country. Introduced medicinal plants (Table 2), whose chemical components and biological activities are usually known, have the potential of immediate practical applications. Allium sativum, Mentha piperita, and Aloe vera are representative examples of plants with these characteristics. On the other hand, endemic medicinal species are of primary importance for Ecuador, which is the only owner in the world of unique botanical resources that must therefore be preserved with extreme care. Moreover, the phytochemistry and biological activities of little-investigated endemic plants deserve to be investigated for their potential as new natural sources of isolated compounds or extracts with therapeutic interest. Examples of plants endemic to Ecuador, which have already aroused great scientific interest, are: Lepichinia mutica Benth. (Lamiaceae), which produces appreciable amounts of carnosol, a compound with potent anti-BuChE activity [81]; Gynoxys miniphylla Cuatrec. (Asteraceae), whose EO exhibits promising cholinergic, antiviral, and analgesic effects [82], and Clinopodium tomentosum (Kunth) Govaerts (Lamiaceae), whose leaf extract influences in vitro cell proliferation and angiogenesis on primary cultures of porcine aortic endothelial cells [83].

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, C.A. and J.R.; writing—original draft preparation, C.A., J.R., and G.V.; literature retrieval, J.R. and C.A.; review supervision and editing, G.V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Funding Statement

This research was funded by the Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja by paying the article publication fees.