Table 2.

Advantages and drawbacks of using different strategies of prevention and control of plant-parasitic nematodes.

Prevention/Control Strategy	Advantages	Drawbacks
Chemical control using pesticides	Pesticides occasion a direct lethal effect on the nematodes, and a prompt and effective reduction in the nematode population followed by an improvement in the plant health is expected	(1)Public health risk. The consumption of agricultural food contaminated with pesticide residues shows mutagenic, carcinogenic, cytotoxic, genotoxic, and a range of health-related issues in human beings [56]. Accidental pesticide poisoning can cause a large number of fatalities [57]. (2)Environmental consequences. Contamination of soil and aquifers affects beneficial microbiota, putting soil fertility at risk and enhancing soil erosion [58]. This alteration of the ecosystem could cause an imbalance in flora and fauna population densities with potentially devastating consequences [59]. (3)Using chemical pesticides should be minimised, and their use should be considered only as a part of an integrated control using other sustainable strategies [60].
Crop rotation	The rotation of crops with plants of a different family can reduce the size of nematode populations, thus mitigating their establishment in the new species of plant and reducing the disease [61].	Crops from different families must be alternated, and thus, farmers have to consider changing and alternating their crops.
Planting resistant crop varieties	Using crop varieties with different types of natural genes that cause resistance to nematodes has led to promising results against nematodes [62]. Specialised nematode resistance genes induce active resistance against nematodes and provoke important damage in nematode tissues, including necrosis and the death of nematodes improving the crop health [63].	This system requires RNA technology to select crop varieties with genes associated with resistance to nematodes.
Fallowing	During the off-season, clean fallowing eliminates the nematode plant host availability along with their chance to feed on plants. This simple practice leads to a gradual decline in the nematode population due to nematode deaths because of starvation [18].	None
Soil amendments	Incorporating organic matter, such as compost prepared with animal manure and decomposed plant material, into soil enhances the soil organic matter and proliferation of the microbial biomass, releasing pest-regulating compounds and eventually improving plant health [64].	None
Biological control	The control is highly specific in a blank organism. This practice is the most effective sustainable strategy for the control of plant parasitic nematodes based on the biotechnological use of nematode natural enemies, including fungi, bacteria, and other microorganisms [30,65].	Setting up a biological control system is a costly effort. A lot of planning and money goes into developing a successful system. The time to reduce the parasite population is much slower compared with a chemical pesticide, which produces results immediately.