Table 2.

Studies performed in the in vitro and in vivo assays to determine the anti-inflammatory activity when using the extracts or fractions from raspberries (Rubus idaeus).

Model	Source	Results	Reference
In vitro
LPS-stimulated microglia	Raspberry extract enriched in ellagitannins and ellagic acid derivatives Dose: 1 µg GAE/mL	Increased the release of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. Attenuated pro-inflammatory markers and mediators CD40, NO, TNF-α, and intracellular superoxide via NF-κB, MAPK and NFAT pathways.	[108]
LPS/IFN-γ-activated RAW 264.7 macrophages	Crude extracts, anthocyanin-rich fractions, and des-anthocyanin fractions from dried raspberry Dose: 200 mg/mL	The best anti-inflammatory results were obtained with the anthocyanin-rich fractions: highest efficiency in suppressing nitric oxide synthesis, reduced the levels COX-2, IL-1β and IL-6; and inhibited the activation of NF-κB and MAPKs. Decreased the phosphorylation of IKK, IκBα, p65 and JNK and the nuclear translocation of p65.	[100]
In vivo
Dextran sulfate sodium– induced chronic colitis in mice	Dried raspberry Dose: 5% of dry feed weight	Mice who received dried raspberry supplementation in their diet, showed: facilitated epithelium repair, a reduced expression of inflammatory mediators (by 20–70%; p ≤ 0.01), infiltration of CD4 T cells (by 50%; p ≤ 0.05), and α4β7 integrin and related adhesion molecules (by 33.3%; p ≤ 0.01). Enhanced p53 stability by 53% and oncogenic gene expression was reduced by 50–60%.	[109]
Dextran sulfate sodium– induced chronic colitis in mice	Crude extracts, anthocyanin-rich fractions, and des-anthocyanin fractions from dried raspberry Dose: 20 mg/kg	Anthocyanin-rich fractions reduced DSS-induced acute colitis by inhibiting the activation of NF-κB and MAPKs, producing lower levels of inflammation and a reduction in morphological alteration. DSS-induced weight loss and histological damage were significantly ameliorated by ARFs treatment.	[100]
Mice with acute lung injury	Ellagic acid Dose: 10 mg/kg	Ellagic acid reduced IL-6 and COX-2 induced exacerbation of inflammation. Additionally, vascular permeability changes and neutrophil recruitment to the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and to lung were reduced.	[104]

Abbreviations: dextran sulfate sodium (DSS), lipopolysaccharide (LPS), gallic acid equivalent (GAE), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), interleukin (IL-6), interleukin-10 (IL-10), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB).