Table 2.
Possible nutraceuticals as feed supplements to counteract OTA poisoning.
| Proposed Feed Supplement | In Vivo/In Vitro Model | Main Antioxidant Effect | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Curcumin (CURC) | Sprague Dawley rats | Reduction in lipid peroxidation, DNA damage and nitrosative stress, as well as enhancement of antioxidant enzyme activity | Longobardi et al., 2021 [62] |
| Red orange and lemon extract (RLE) | Zucker diabetic fatty rats | NOX inhibition | Damiano et al., 2020 [50] |
| δ-tocotrienol | Sprague Dawley rats | Restoration of antioxidant enzyme | Damiano et al., 2018 [41] |
| Quercetin | Sprague Dawley rats | Activation of the Nrf2–ARE pathway | Abdel-Wahhab et al., 2017 [63] |
| Apocynin | MES-13 cells (MMCs) and primary rat mesangial cells (RMCs) | NOX inhibition | Sheu et al., 2017 [64] |
| Catechins | Pig kidney cell line (LLC-PK1) | Generation of an active concentration near and inside the membrane surface to scavenge ROS | Costa et al., 2007 [65] |
| Salvia farinacea and Azadirachta indica water extract | Albino rats | Decrease in the bioavailability of OTA | Hamad et al., 2021 [66] |
| Cyanidin-3-O-β-glucopyranoside | Human epatoma cell line (Hep G2) and a human colonic adenocarcinoma cell line (CaCo-2) | Absorption and neutralization of free radicals, quenching singlet and triplet oxygen, and decomposing peroxides | Guerra et al., 2005 [67] |
| Luteolin (LUT) | NRK-52E rat kidney cells | Activation of the Nrf2–ARE pathway | Liu et al., 2020 [68] |
| Hydroxytyrosol (HT) | Madin–Darby canine kidney cell line (MDCK), a pig kidney cell line (LLC-PK1), and a rabbit kidney cell line (RK 13); Sprague Dawley rats | Preservation of lipid peroxidation | Crupi et al., 2020 [69] |
| Galaxaura oblongata | BALB/C mice | Reduction in LPS-induced acute kidney injuries | Nabil-Adam and Shreadah, 2021 [70] |
| Alsidium corallinum | Mice of a Swiss strain | Prevention of potassium-bromate-induced nephrotoxicity | Ben Saad et al., 2015 [71] |
| Astaxanthin (ASX) | C57BL/6 mice | Activation of Nrf2–ARE-mediated antioxidant enzymes | Ni et al., 2018 [72] |
| Ulva lactuca polysaccharide extract (UPE) | Kunming mice | Glomerular filtration rate recovery | Yang et al., 2020 [73] |