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. 2022 Jun 24;13:3616. doi: 10.1038/s41467-022-31352-x

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 5 — a System boundary for LCA. b Energy efficiency. Reaction condition: CTPH (280 °C, self-generated pressure), DTPH (200 °C, 20 MPa). c Global warming potential (GWP) of WPS and RS at 20 wt% biomass/water ratio and 200 °C. SF: solid fuel. SA: soil amendment. Error bars represent the range of net GWP values obtained from various substitution scenarios. d GHG reduction potential of RS-SF scenario in China. e LCA of WPS-SF and RS-SF at 20 wt% biomass/water ratio and 200 °C normalized based on net values of RS-SF case. ODP: stratospheric ozone depletion (kg CFC-11 eq.). TETP: terrestrial ecotoxicity (kg 1,4-DCB). FETP: freshwater ecotoxicity (kg 1,4-DCB). METP: marine ecotoxicity (kg 1,4-DCB). FFP: fossil resource scarcity (kg oil eq.) See Supplementary Table 11 and Supplementary Data 1 for the full LCA results.