a, Confocal images of the M2 region under different experiment conditions. An increase in c-Fos expression driven by NIR-II stimulation was only observed in the presence of both TRPV1 and MINDS. The scale bars indicate 50 μm. The number of images taken is reflected in the n values for b–d. b, Statistical analysis for the density of c-Fos+ cells for the four experiment conditions in a (one-way ANOVA, F(3,8) = 13.11, P = 0.0019; F(2,6) = 1.22, P = 0.36). c, Percentage of c-Fos+ cells within the TRPV1+ cell population. (one-way ANOVA, F (2,6) = 296.45, P < 0.0001; F(1,4) = 1.2, P = 0.33). d, Percentage of TRPV1+ cells within the c-Fos+ cell population. (one-way ANOVA, F(2,6) = 19.32, P < 0.0024; F(1,4) = 1.26, P = 0.32). Both c and d were analysed for the three experimental groups with TRPV1 transduction. All data are presented as mean values +/− SD n = 3 mice per group (P ≥ 0.05 (N.S.), **P < 0.01, ****P < 0.0001.).