Table 2.
Comparison of different single and combinatorial methods in wastewater treatment for virus removal (Chen et al., 2021b).
| Process | LRVs | Major function mechanism | Advantage | Disadvantage |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| MBR | 1.40–7.10 | Virus attaches to the mix of liquor solids; control by membrane by cake layer; enzymes inactivate viruses | High flux and removal efficiency, less space demand | Removed incompletely dissolved organic matters (<500 kDa); high cost for operation and maintenance |
| MF | 0.70–4.60 | Adsorption significantly by membrane surface or pores; followed by size exclusion | High permeability; low pressure-driven process | Less removal efficiency; humans' health risk potential |
| UF | 0.50–5.90 | Retention by membrane and Adsorption significantly by membrane surface or pores | High permeability and flux; low initial cost and efficiency removal of high molecular weight pollutants | High cost operation and maintenance; high fluctuate removal efficiency |
| NF/RO | 4.10–7.00 | Size exclusion; Electrostatic interactions | High performance and reliability, specific removal of enveloped and nonenveloped viral based only on size-exclusion | High facilities and requirements for high quality removal |
| Chlorination | 1.00–>5.0 | Degradation of protein, nucleic acid and viral capsid | Easy operation, economically method | formation of DBP, corrosive, residual toxicity |
| UV radiation | 0.09–5.00 | Lesions formation in virus genome and degradation of genome and protein cross-link | Without formation of DBP, low contact time, short process and space, without extra chemicals, low sensitivity of pH and temperature | Low efficiency for residual disinfection, high level of energy consumption in UV-LEDs |
| Ozonation | 0.60–7.70 | Formation of free radical from interaction of water and ozone | low contact time, inactivation of viruses | No residual disinfection efficiency, high energy consumption |
| Photocatalysis | 1.00–8.00 | Redox reaction of some reactive species with visible or UV light | Easy preparation, favorable catalytic process, low operation cost, good stability | Detect low quantum yield for a few materials; low efficiency |
| Electrocatalysis | 3.40–5.00 | Redox reaction in electrolysis cell | Applicable for specific viruses | Electricity consumption |