Table 3.
Comparison nanomaterials for adsorption or membrane process in virus removal and their pros and cons.
| Material Family | Example | Method | Type of Virus removed | pros and cons | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Carbon | Granular activated carbon (GAC) | Adsorption | Bacteriophage MS-2 | -ACFC adsorbent was more efficient for virus adsorption than GAC; -Due to its shape, GAC was not the best adsorbent for virus besides both surface areas are comparable - Carbon family is a common family for membrane and adsorption process |
(Powell et al., 2000; Ahmed et al., 2012) |
| Activated carbon fiber composite (ACFC) | |||||
| Poly-N-vinyl carbazole- single-walled carbon nanotube (PVK-SWNT) | Membrane | Bacteria | |||
| MOF | Metal–Organic Frameworks (MOFs) | Adsorption/Membrane | Zika, Dengue, human immune deficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) and Japanese encephalitis virus and SARS-CoV-2 | -It has been shown that the textural properties (pore size and volume), crystal morphology and chemical functionality of MOFs can be modulated to obtain specific performances for virus removal; -MOFs-based materials have also been used to develop sensor for detecting Zika, Dengue, human immune deficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) and Japanese encephalitis virus with promising results -They induce synergistic properties into nanostructured polymeric membranes |
(Riccò et al., 2018; Gohil and Choudhury, 2019; Rabiee et al., 2022) |
| Zeolite | Zeolite | Adsorption/Membrane | Coronavirus 229 E | -Silver and copper-doped zeolites can induce a significant reduction of the presence of the Coronavirus in water solution after 1 h of treatment; -The functionalization of zeolite via silver and copper, i.e. metals presenting known antibacterial properties, has been shown to be an efficient way to inhibit Coronavirus; -The adsorption mechanism was explained by the surface charge, hydrophobicity and surface properties of pathogens and NPs matrix; -It was shown that the removal efficiency of Fe3O4–SiO2–NH2 NPs over bacteriophage f2 and Poliovirus-1 are more than 97% - It can offer high thermal stability and chemically robust structure |
(Pendergast and Hoek, 2011; Mintova et al., 2015; Mobed et al., 2021) |
| Hybrid nanomaterials | - Silica-decorated TiO2 - Polyvinyl alcohol/Polyacrylic acid/TiO2/Graphene Oxide |
Adsorption/Membrane | Bacteriophage MS-2 | -It was shown that doped-TiO2 including 5% of SiO2 has a 37-fold enhanced viral removal performance compared to pristine TiO2; It shows significant removal percentage for membrane method -It was suggested that this removal approach has the advantage of using low-cost and green materials. |
(Moon et al., 2013; Sellaoui et al., 2021) |