Table 2.
Anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity of fucoidan and carrageenan
| Sulfated polysaccharide | Cell line | Dose (µg mL−1) | Mechanism/Results | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fucoidan fractions (RPI-27 and RPI-28) | Vero-CCL81 | EC50 values of RPI-27 (8.3 µg mL−1) | Inhibiting of viral attachment via binding to the S-protein of SARSE-CoV-2 | Kwon et al. (2020) |
| Extracted from Saccharina japonica | RPI-28 (1.2 µM), Remdesivir (11.4 µM) | Fucoidan was more effective than remdesivir | ||
| Commercial fucoidan, iota carrageenan and sea cucumber sulfated polysaccharide (SCSP) | Vero E6 cells | Fucoidan concentration ≥ 15.6 µg mL−1 |
Inhibition of virus attachment via binding to S protein of virus Virus aggregation by iota-carrageenan |
Song et al. (2020) |
| Iota-carrageenan concentration ≥ 125 µg mL−1 |
SCSP had highest sulfation degree and inhibitory effect Fucoidan was stronger than iota-carrageenan |
|||
| Commercial iota-, kappa- and lambda- carrageenan | SARS-CoV-2 Spike Pseudotyped Lentivirus | Iota carrageenan (10 and 100 µg mL−1) | Inhibiting of virus entry and replication | Morokutti-Kurz et al. (2020) |
| Kappa- and lambda-carrageenan (100 µg mL−1) | Iota carrageenan was more effective than others | |||
| Nasal spray formulated with iota carrageenan and xylitol | Vero E6 cell culture | Iota carrageenan (at least concentration 6 µg mL−1) xylitol (50 mg mL−1) |
Inhibiting of virus entry and replication Combination of carrageenan and xylitol was more effective |
Bansal et al. (2020) |
| Nasal spray formulated with lambda-carrageenan |
Madin–Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells BALB/c mice |
EC50 value of 0.9 µg mL−1 |
Blocking of viral attachment to host cell receptors Prevention of virus entry and production |
Jang et al. (2021) |
| Nose and mouth sprays formulated with iota- and kappa- carrageenan | TMPRSS2-Vero E6 cells |
Iota carrageenan (1.2 mg mL−1) Kappa–carrageenan (0.4 mg mL−1) |
Decreased viral attachment and entry into target cells because the sulfated polysaccharide mimics cellular heparin sulfates or aggregates viral particles | Schütz et al. (2021) |
| Nasal spray formulated with iota-carrageenan and sodium chloride | Calu-3, a human respiratory model cell line | Iota carrageenan (1.7 mg mL−1) and sodium chloride (9 mg mL−1) | Inhibiting of viral entry and production | Varese et al. (2021) |