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. 2022 Jun 27;20:305. doi: 10.1186/s12951-022-01510-w

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 7 — Interactions between positively (A–C) and negatively (D) charged magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) and the plasma membrane. Electrostatic interactions with cationic MNPs and anionic syndecans and glypicans containing heparan sulfate (A). Nonspecific cationic MNPs interactions with anionic phospholipids (B). Transient pore formation by small cationic MNPs (≤ 20 nm) due to the strong attraction to the inner membrane layer in phosphatidylserine-rich regions (C). Local membrane gelation induced by anionic MNPs in phosphatidylcholine-rich membrane microdomains (D)