Table 3.

Summary of current advancements in 3D-printed scaffolds

Component	Fabrication technique	Experimental model	Outcomes	Literature support
PCL + polyglycolic acid	3D wax printing	Immunodeficient rats: surgically created periodontal defects	More physiologic PDL-like fiber organization was demonstrated for fiber guiding scaffolds compared to random scaffold architectures	Park et al.[116]
PCL + hydroxyapatite	Layer-by-layer deposition	Immunodeficient mice: ectopic model (subcutaneous implantation)	The delivery of biologic cues combined with the seeding of DPSCs led to the formation of bone, PDL and cementum/dentin-like tissues in the various compartments, and inserting PDL fibers with a perpendicular orientation were observed	Lee et al.[117]
PCL	Fused deposition modeling	Human study: Pilot randomized controlled clinical trial	Insertion of PCL scaffolds in fresh extraction sockets resulted in normal bone healing and less vertical ridge resorption after 6 months compared to spontaneous healing	Goh et al.[118]
PCL	Selective laser sintering	Human study: aggressive periodontitis	The construct remained intact for 12 months following therapy, but became exposed after 13 months	Rasperini et al.[119]
PCL	Layer-by-layer deposition	Human study: posterior mandibular defects	A straightforward and reproducible workflow for fabrication of highly porous (84% porosity) custom 3D-printed scaffolds for large volume alveolar bone regeneration was reported	Bartnikowski et al.[120]

PCL: polycaprolactone; PDL: periodontal ligament; DPSCs: dental pulp stem cells