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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2023 Apr 1.
Published in final edited form as: Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2022 Jan 19;135:104531. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104531

Table 2.

Hormones Associated with Fathers’ Parenting and the Transition to Fatherhood

Hormone Role in Fathers’ Parenting Changes in Fatherhood References
Estradiol (E2) Converted from T to activate parental behavior in some species Variability in fathers according to species and measurement Saltzman & Ziegler, 2014; Bales & Saltzman, 2016; Storey & Ziegler, 2016; Storey & Walsh, 2011; Gettler et al., 2018
Testosterone (T) Organizing brain circuitry related to paternal behavior; activating adult/parental behavior (via conversion to E2) in some species Some increased circulating levels during mate’s gestation, but decreased levels in fathers following birth Bales & Jarcho, 2013; Saltzman & Ziegler, 2014; Bales & Saltzman, 2016; Storey & Ziegler, 2016; Storey & Walsh, 2011; Gettler, et al., 2011a, b; Rilling & Mascaro, 2017
Oxytocin (OT) Associated with food-sharing tolerance, infant interactions, and parent-infant affect synchrony Inconsistent findings in brain signaling and circulating levels in fathers across animal species Saltzman & Ziegler, 2014; Bales & Saltzman, 2016; Storey & Ziegler, 2016; Rilling & Mascaro, 2017
Vasopressin (AVP) Associated with a wide range of male reproductive behaviors & activities Inconsistent findings in brain signaling and circulating levels in fathers across animal species Saltzman & Ziegler, 2014; Bales & Saltzman, 2016; Storey & Ziegler, 2016
Glucocorticoids (GC) Facilitates paternal behavior in new fathers; associated with infant carrying & responsiveness to infant cries Increased circulating levels during mate’s gestation and drop postpartum Bales & Jarcho, 2013; Saltzman & Ziegler, 2014; Bales & Saltzman, 2016; Storey & Ziegler, 2016; Gettler et al., 2011b.

Note: This is a general overview only which does not take into account interactions between individual hormones. Readers are directed to the references for more detailed information.