Table 6.

Example Evidence of the Effects of Early Life Adversity on Males’ Behavior & Development

Citation	Study Design	Species	N	Early Life Adversity (ELA)			Key Findings
				Type	Timing	Measure
Externalizing Behaviors & Mental Health(Cyr et al., 2010; Godinet et al., 2014; Leban & Gibson, 2020; Maccari et al., 2014; Seff & Stark, 2019; Suomi, 1991, 1997; Terrell et al., 2019; Veenema, 2009)
Suomi, 1991, 1997; Veenema, 2009;	Review	Rodents and non-human primates	Varies	Repeated maternal separations or maternal absence	Varies	N/A	ELA induces impulsive, excessive and inappropriate aggression toward social group members among males during adolescence and adulthood
Maccari et al., 2014	Review	Rodents	Varies	Maternal separation or maternal deprivation	Varies	N/A	Male rodent offspring exposed to ELA show increased risk-taking behaviors in a rat model of stress-related diseases across the lifespan
Terrell et al., 2019	P, L	Humans	1388	Index of nine adversities (e.g. maternal substance use, poverty)	Birth to age 3	PR, O	ELA associated with increased aggressive behavior at age 12 to 14 years among males, but not females
Cyr et al., 2017	CS	Humans	1400	Victimization (e.g. crime, maltreatment, exposure to violence)	Birth to current age (12 to 17 years)	RSR	Sexual victimization predicted anger and aggressive behavior in adolescent females. History of physical assault and witnessing violence predicted anger in adolescent males.
Godinet, et al., 2014	P, L	Humans	484	Maltreatment	Birth to age 4 years	CPS	Males with allegations of maltreatment had more externalizing behavior problems than controls at age 4, but effects decreased over time and groups were not significantly different at age 10. Among females, effects increased over time, with no group differences at age 4 but more behavioral problems in the maltreatment allegation group noted by age 12.
Leban & Gibson, 2020	P, L	Humans	1911	Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)	Birth to current age (Mean 12 years)	SR	Among adolescents, childhood ACEs were associated with increased delinquency among males only and with substance use among females only
Seff & Stark, 2019	CS	Humans	2670 (Kenya sample)	Emotional violence	Birth to current age (Mean 18 years)	RSR	Emotional violence associated with increased risk for suicidal ideation among males and females in Haiti, Kenya and Tanzania. In Kenya only, this association was statistically larger among males than females.
Attachment (Bales & Saltzman, 2016; Beeghly et al., 2017; Carlson et al., 1989; Kobulsky et al., 2016; Lyons- Ruth et al., 1999; Murray, 1992; Rogers & Bales, 2019)
Bales & Saltzman, 2016; Rogers & Bales, 2019	Review	Rodents	Varies	Paternal deprivation via removal of father	Varies	N/A	Male offspring exposed to father removal show deficits in pair-bonding as adults
Carlson et al., 1989	CS	Humans	43 dyads	Maltreatment	Birth to 16 months	CPS	Maltreated children were more likely to have disorganized attachment than non-maltreated children. Males were more likely to have disorganized attachment than females, regardless of maltreatment status.
Lyons-Ruth et al., 1999	CS	Humans	65 dyads	Maltreatment, atypical maternal behavior	Birth to 18 months	CPS, O	Among mothers with history of maltreatment, disorganized attachment was more common among male infants than female infants
Beeghly et al., 2017,	L, P	Humans	182 dyads	Maternal depression	Birth to 18 months	PR	Rapid increase in maternal depressive symptoms was associated with lower attachment security at 18 months, but only for male children.
Murray, 1992	L, P	Humans	111	Maternal depression	Birth to 18 months	PR	Among children exposed to maternal depression, males were 3.6 times more likely than females to have insecure attachment
Kobulsky et al, 2016	L	Humans	297 dyads	Exposure to violence (e.g. domestic violence, bullying community violence)	Birth to age 10 years	SR	ELA predicted tobacco and substance use at age 12 years for both males and females. In females only, this relationship was mediated by depression and anxiety symptoms at age 11. In males only, adoptive status was a risk factor for alcohol use and higher home quality was protective against substance use.
Substance Misuse (Hudson et al., 2017; Huggins et al., 2012)
Huggins et al., 2012	E, P	Rhesus monkeys	18	Maternal separation in infancy (via nursery rearing)	Up to 7 months postnatal	N/A	As young adults, ELA monkeys consumed more alcohol in a free-drinking paradigm than controls, and also exhibited lower serotonin functioning in the brain
Hudson et al., 2017	CS	Humans	301	Childhood Sexual Abuse	Birth to 18 years (mean age 15.9 years)	SR	Relationship between childhood sexual abuse and problem drinking was fully mediated by anger and anxiety symptoms among females, and partially mediated by anger symptoms among males.

Note: Study Design: E=Experimental, P=Prospective, L=Longitudinal, CS=Cross-sectional

ELA Measure: CPS=Child Protective Services records; O=observation PR=Parent report; RSR=Retrospective self-report; SR=Self report