Table 3.
Study characteristics
| Author(s), Year [Reference No.] | Participant (size, age, height, weight, population) | IMUs | Reference system | Running speed/running distance | Research field | Parameters | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Name (manufacturer) | Composition | Number | Placement | Sample frequency | ||||||
| Ammann et al., 2016 [32] |
12 subjects (5 F, 7 M; age: 25.3 ± 3.2 years; height: 174.4 ± 7.9 cm; weight: 64.8 ± 10.2 kg) High-level running athletes |
PARTwear (PW, HuCE-microLab, University of Applied Sciences, Biel, Switzerland) | 3D accelerometer (± 16 g); 3D gyroscope; 3D magnetometer | 2 | Lace of the shoe | 1000 Hz | OMC (Camera Marathon Ultra CL600, Videal AG, Niederonz, Switzerland) | Maximal sprinting speed (8.0 ± 0.5 m/s); intense training speed (6.2 ± 0.7 m/s); normal training speed (4.3 ± 0.7 m/s); all speeds (6.2 ± 1.6 m/s) (40 m) | Indoor track | Stance time |
| Bergamini et al., 2012 [33] |
Group A: 6 amateur athletes (2F, 4 M; height: 172 ± 12 cm; weight: 63.50 ± 10.84 kg) Group E: 5 elite athletes (2F, 3 M; height: 177 ± 76 cm; weight: 65.00 ± 8.25 kg) Total: 11 participants (4F, 7 M; height: 174 ± 10 cm; weight: 64.18 ± 9.78 kg) |
IMU (FreeSense, Sensorize, Italy) | 3D accelerometer (± 6 g); 3D gyroscope (± 500°/s) | 1 | Lower back trunk (L1 level) | 200 HZ | OMC (Casio Exilim EX-F1, Japan); 9 force platforms (Z20740AA, Kistler, Switzerland) | Three sprint runs of 60 m | Indoor track; outdoor training track | Stance time, stride time |
| Brahms et al., 2018 [34] | 11 healthy young adults (4F, 7 M; age: 22.3 ± 1.5 years; height: 175.2 ± 23.1 cm; weight: 76.04 ± 3.19 kg) | Xsens (MTw) | – | 1 | Right foot | 100 Hz | OMC (Vicon) | A range of typical distance running speeds/10 m trial runs (3.55 ± 0.34 m/s, range: 2.71–4.36 m/s) | Indoor | Stride length |
| Cooper et al., 2009 [35] | 7 subjects (2F, 5 M; age: 30 ± 6 years; height: 170 ± 20 cm; weight: 70 ± 11 kg) | IMU (ETB Ltd, Codicote, UK) | 3D accelerometer (± 5 g); 3D gyroscopes (± 1200°/s) | 2 | Thigh and shank | 100 Hz | OMC (Qualysis) | 5 mile/hour | Treadmill | Knee joint flexion/extension angles |
| Day et al., 2021 [36] |
30 subjects (21F; weight: 54.0 ± 5.3 kg; 9 M; weight: 63.6 ± 6.7 kg) National Collegiate Athletic Association Division 1 cross country runners |
IMU (IMeasureU, Auckland, New Zealand) | – | 1 | Over waistband | 500 Hz | Instrumented treadmill (Treadmetrix, Park City, UT/Bertec, Columbus, OH) | M: 3.8, 4.1 and 5.4 m/s; F: 3.8 and 4.9 m/s | Treadmill | Stance time |
| Deflandre et al., 2018 [37] |
Reliability: 10 young male athletes (age: 14 ± 0.5 years; height: 168 ± 7 cm; weight: 56 ± 9 kg) Validity: 20 male athletes (age: 32 ± 14 years; height: 181 ± 16 cm; weight: 71 ± 7 kg) |
Myotest (Myotest SA, Sion, Switzerland) | 3D accelerometer | 1 | The iliac crests mark, in the alignment with the umbilicus | Hz | The Optogait (Microgate, Bolzano, Italy); 3D optoelectronic CX1 units (Codamotion, Charnwood Dynamics Ltd, UK) | 8 km/h, 12 km/h and 16 km/h (80 m); 8 km/h and 16 km/h | Outside: artificial turf field; indoor: treadmill | Stance time, step length, stride length, step frequency |
| De Fontenay et al., 2020 [38] |
32 healthy participants (13F, 19 M; age: 27.0 ± 5.5 years; height: 174.4 ± 8.5 cm; weight: 69.1 ± 11.4 kg) 32 participants were analyzed for RunScribeTM, 31 participants were analyzed for MilestonePod and TgForce, 30 for Zoi, and 25 for Moov NowTM |
Moov Now™ (Moov, San Mateo, California, USA); MilestonePod (Milestone Sports, Long beach, California, USA); RunScribe™ (Montara, California, USA); Zoi (Runteq, Tampere, Finland); TgForce (Kelsec Systems Inc.,Montréal, Canada) | – | – | Moov Now™: outside of the ankle and the loop end of the band forward; MilestonePod: shoelaces; RunScribe™: heel mount; Zoi: chest strap and shoelaces; TgForce: medial end of tibia | – | OMC (Vicon); Instrumented treadmill with force plates (Bertec, Columbus, OH, USA) | - | Treadmill | Step frequency |
| Dorschky et al., 2019 [39] | 10 healthy male subjects (age: 27.1 ± 2.6 years; height: 182 ± 5 cm; weight: 76.9 ± 8.6 kg) | Custom-built IMUs (Portabiles GmbH, Erlangen, DE) | 3D accelerometers (± 16 g); Gyroscopes (± 2000°/s) | 7 | Lower back, right and left lateral thigh, lateral shank, and upper midfoot | 1000 Hz | OMC (Vicon MX, Oxford, UK); Force plate (Kistler Instruments Corp, Winterhur, CH) | 3.0–4.9 m/s | Indoor | Hip, knee, and ankle angles in the sagittal plane |
| Falbriard et al., 2018 [40] | 41 healthy adults (13F, 28 M; age: 29 ± 6 years; height 174 ± 8 cm; weight 70 ± 10 kg) | IMU (Physilog 4, Gait Up, Switzerland) | 3D accelerometer (± 16 g); 3D gyroscope (± 2000 ◦/s) | 2 | Dorsum of each foot | 500 Hz | Instrumented treadmill (T-170-FMT, Arsalis, Belgium) | Starting at 8 km/h and increasing by 2 km/h up to maximum speed | Treadmill | Stance time, flight time, swing time, step time |
| Fox et al., 2019 [41] | 26 recreationally active participants (age: 32.2 ± 11.0 years; height: 173.3 ± 9.9 cm; weight: 74.2 ± 16.2 kg) | Polar Team Pro Sensor (Polar Electro, Kempele, Finland) | GPS; accelerometer; gyroscope; digital compass | 2 | Upper-torso between the scapulae and the centre of the chest at the level of the xiphoid process | 200 Hz | Electronic timing light (Fusion Sport, Coopers Plains, QLD, Australia) | Medium (moderate, jogging) speed; high (maximal, sprint) speed | Indoor (sprung hardwood floor) | Running speed |
| García-Pinillos et al., 2019 [42] | 49 amateur endurance runners (5F, 44 M; age: 26 ± 8 years; height: 174 ± 7 cm; weight: 71 ± 10 kg) | Stryd™ (Stryd Powermeter, Stryd Inc. Boulder CO, USA); RunScribe™ (Scribe Lab. Inc. San Francisco CA, USA) |
Stryd™: 3D gyroscope; 3D accelerometer RunScribe™: 3D gyroscope; 3D accelerometer; 3D magnetometer |
2 | Lace shoe of the right leg | RunScribe™: 500 Hz | OMC (Imaging Source DFK 33UX174, The Imaging Source Europe GmbH; Germany) | Self-selected comfortable running velocity: 3.25 ± 0.36 m/s | Treadmill | Stance time, flight time, step length, step frequency |
| Gindre et al., 2016 [43] | 20 habitual male runners (age: 31.6 ± 9.2 years, height: 178 ± 5.4 cm, weight: 72.5 ± 9.8 kg) | Myotest® | – | 1 | Around the waist of participants | 500 Hz | The Optojump Next®; OMC (Casio High Speed EXILIM EX-FH25®, CASIO Europe GmbH, Norderstedt, Germany) | 12 m/h; 15 km/h; 18 km/h; 21 km/h (60 m) | Indoor | Stance time, aerial time, step frequency |
| Kim et al., 2021 [44] | 10 healthy male participants (age: 30.2 ± 5.3 years, height: 171 ± 15.3 cm, weight: 73.6 ± 12.4 kg | Adafruit BNO055 IMU sensors (Adafruit, New York, NY, USA) | – | 2 | Top of the instep of the right foot, and the right shin | 100 Hz | OMC (VICON, Oxford, UK) | 2.68 m/s | Indoor | Ankle dorsiflexion/plantarflexion and eversion/inversion angle |
| Koldenhoven and Hertel, 2018 [45] | 12 recreational runners (6F, 6 M; age: 23.1 ± 5.5 years) | RunScribe™ (Scribe Labs, Inc., Half Moon Bay, CA, USA) | 3D accelerometer; gyroscope | 2 | The back of each shoe | Hz | OMC (Vicon Motion Systems, Inc., Lake Forest, CA, USA); Instrumented treadmill (Bertec, Columbus, OH, USA) | Preferred speed: 2.7 ± 0.1 m/s; 1.5 miles | Treadmill | Stance time, cycle time, stride length, running speed |
| Konharn et al., 2016 [46] | 30 normal-weight participants (15F, 15 M; age: 21.7 ± 1.0 years; height: 163.3 ± 19.5 cm; weight: 59.4 ± 8.5 kg) | Apps (Runtastic pedometer, Footsteps pedometer, and Walker pedometer) were downloaded into iPhone5 (iOS 7.0.3, Apple, Inc, CA, USA) | – | 1 | Right hip at the midline | – | The OZ1 Marathon treadmill (Marathon (Thailand) Co., Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand); The HJ-203 Omron pedometer (Omron Healthcare, Co., Ltd., Kyoto, Japan) | Moderate: 6.4 km/h; vigorous: 8 km/h | Treadmill | Running speed |
| Koska et al., 2018 [47] | 51 recreational runners (15F, 36 M; 33.9 ± 8.2 years, height: 177.9 ± 7.6 cm; weight: 70.9 ± 10.1 kg) | IMU (aims®, Xybermind, Tübingen, Germany) | 3D accelerometer (± 16 g); gyroscope (± 2000°/s) | 1 | The heel cup of the right shoe | 400 Hz | OMC (Qualisys, Gothenburg, Sweden) | 10 m/h; 12 km/h; 15 km/h | Treadmill | Rearfoot sagittal/eversion ROM |
| Li et al., 2020 [48] | 10 healthy subjects (age > 18 years; height: 170 ± 10 cm; weight: 75 ± 10 kg) | Microelectromechanical system (MEMS) IMUs | - | 7 | The left side of the waist, bilateral knees above and below, bilateral feet | 50 Hz | NDI system (NDI, Ontario, Canada) | 5.1 km/h | Indoor | Hip, knee, and ankle angles in the sagittal plane |
| Mavor et al., 2020 [12] | 20 civilian participants (10F, 10 M; age: 23.7 ± 3.44 years; height: 175 ± 7.93 cm; 71.9 ± 13.2 kg) | IMU (MVN BIOMECH, Xsens, Enschede, the Netherlands) | – | 17 | The back of the head, sacrum, sternum, and bilaterally on the upper arms, forearms, hands, shoulders, thighs, shanks, and feet | 240 Hz | OMC (Vantage 5, Vicon, Oxford, UK) | - | Indoor | Hip, knee, and ankle flexion–extension, ab/adduction and axial rotation angle |
| Mo and Chow, 2018 [49] | 11 healthy volunteers (4F, 7 M; age: 25.5 ± 4.2 years; height: 168.3 ± 9.1 cm; weight: 58.8 ± 5.3 kg) | IMU system (MyoMOTION MR3, Noraxon, USA) | 3D accelerometer (± 16 g) | 5 | Sacrum (L5-S1), shanks (anteromedial distal aspect of the tibia) and feet (the dorsal surface of the shoe) | 200 Hz | Force-platforms (Bertec, FP4060-07, USA) | Jog (3.1 ± 0.1 m/s); run (4.1 ± 1.2 m/s) | Indoor: 10 m walkway | Stance time |
| Nüesch et al., 2017 [50] | 20 healthy subjects (12F, 8 M; age: 27.4 ± 8.3 years; height: 175 ± 8 cm; weight: 66.5 ± 12.5 kg) | IMU (RehaGait®, Hasomed, Magdeburg, Germany) | 3D accelerometer (± 16 g); 3D gyroscope (± 2000°/s); 3D magnetometer (± 1.3 Gs) | 7 | The sacrum and bilaterally on the lateral thigh (middle), lateral shank (lower third), and lateral foot (on the shoe, below lateral malleolus) | 400 Hz | OMC (Vicon MX, Vicon Motion Systems Ltd., Oxford, UK) | Self-selected running speed (2.93 ± 0.35 m/s) | Treadmill | Hip, knee, and ankle angles in the sagittal plane/at initial contact; maximal/minimal ankle angle; ankle dorsiflexion/ plantarflexion ROM; hip and knee ROM (first and second half stride) |
| Schmidt et al., 2016 [51] | 12 track and field athletes (2F, 10 M) | IMU (MPU-9150) from InvenSense | 3D accelerometer (16 bit and ± 16 g range); 3D gyroscope (16 bit and ± 1000°/s); 3D magnet field sensor | 2 | Ankles | 1000 Hz | OptojumpNext photocell system (Microgate, Bolzano, Italy / OJ) | Maximal sprints on a 60 m track | Track | Stance time |
| Watari et al., 2016 [52] | 22 semi-elite runners (8F, 14 M; age: 28.2 ± 10.1 years; height: 173 ± 75 cm; weight: 65.4 ± 8.1 kg) | Built-in accelerometer (Forerunner 620, Garmin International Inc., Olathe, KS) | – | 1 | Torso of the runner, near the xiphoid process of the sternum | – | Instrumented treadmill (Bertec, Columbus, OH); OMC (Vicon Motion System, Vicon MX3, Oxford, UK) motion capture system | 2.7 m/s; 3.0 m/s; 3.3 m/s; 3.6 m/s; 3.9 m/s | Treadmill | Stance time |
| Wouda et al., 2018 [53] | 8 healthy experienced male runners (age: 25.1 ± 5.2 years; height: 183.7 ± 4.5 cm; weight: 77.7 ± 9.4 kg) | Xsens MVN Link inertial motion capture system (Xsens, Enschede, the Netherlands) | – | 17 | Both shoulders, upper arms, lower arms, hands, upper legs, lower legs, feet, head, sternum, and pelvis | 240 Hz | OMC (Nexus 1.8.5, Vicon, Oxford, UK); S-Mill instrumented treadmill (ForceLink, Culemborg, the Netherlands) | 10 m/h; 12 km/h; 14 km/h | Treadmill | Maximum knee flexion/extension angle during Stance |
| Zrenner et al., 2018 [54] | 27 amateur runners (6F, 21 M; age: 24.9 ± 2.4 years; height: 178.6 ± 8.0 cm) | miPod IMU sensor | Accelerometer (± 16 g); gyroscope (± 2000 ◦/s) | 2 | A cavity in the right and left shoes midsole | 200 Hz | OMC (Vicon Motion Systems Inc., Oxford, UK) | 2–6 m/s | Indoor | Stride length, running speed |
| Zrenner et al., 2020 [55] | 29 amateur runners (6F, 23 M; age: 24.9 ± 2.4 years) | miPod IMU sensors | Accelerometer (± 16 g); gyroscope (± 2000 ◦/s) | 8 | A cavity in the sole of the running shoe, laterally under the ankle, at the heel, and on the instep | 200 Hz | OMC (Vicon Motion Systems Inc., Oxford, UK) | 2–6 m/s | Indoor | Stance time, stride time, stride length, running speed, rearfoot ROM in the frontal plane |
F female, M male; IMU inertial measurement unit, OMC optical motion capture system, ROM range of motion