Table 2.
Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of the Final Cohort (N = 40 929)
| Characteristics | Frequency | % |
|---|---|---|
| Age, mean (standard deviation) | 41.45 (12.61) | NA |
| Age categories | ||
| 18-24 y | 5047 | 12.33 |
| 25-29 y | 4195 | 10.25 |
| 30-39 y | 9659 | 23.60 |
| 40-49 y | 9484 | 23.17 |
| 50-59 y | 9834 | 24.03 |
| 60-63 y | 2710 | 6.62 |
| Sex | ||
| Male | 14 531 | 35.50 |
| Female | 26 398 | 64.50 |
| Payer type | ||
| Commercial | 32 720 | 79.94 |
| Medicaid | 8152 | 19.92 |
| Both commercial and Medicaid | 57 | 0.14 |
| Mental health disorders | ||
| Mood disorders | 10 706 | 26.16 |
| Schizophrenia | 1123 | 2.74 |
| Anxiety disorders | 10 816 | 26.43 |
| Personality disorders | 608 | 1.49 |
| Acute reaction to stress | 361 | 0.88 |
| Adjustment disorders | 1362 | 3.33 |
| Substance use disorder | ||
| Tobacco use disorder | 8542 | 20.87 |
| Opioid misuse disorder | 428 | 1.05 |
| Other substance use disorder | 2123 | 5.19 |
| Obesity | 8565 | 20.93 |
| Diabetes | 6712 | 16.40 |
| Charlson Comorbidity Index | ||
| 0 | 29 778 | 72.76 |
| 1 | 7606 | 18.58 |
| 2 | 1866 | 4.56 |
| ≥3 | 1679 | 4.10 |
| Year of index diagnosis | ||
| 2013 | 4582 | 11.19 |
| 2014 | 13 022 | 31.82 |
| 2015 | 10 453 | 25.54 |
| 2016 | 8721 | 21.31 |
| 2017 | 4151 | 10.14 |
| Opioid use within the first 14 d of index date | ||
| No opioid use | 28 747 | 70.24 |
| Any opioid use | 12 182 | 29.76 |
| Opioid use in the 1-y follow-up | ||
| No opioid use | 18 686 | 45.65 |
| Any opioid use | 22 243 | 54.35 |
| Long-term opioid usea | 1805 | 4.41 |
| Long-term opioid useb | 1951 | 4.77 |
| Days’ supply among opioid users in the 1-y follow-up period | ||
| 1-2 d | 1863 | 8.38 |
| 3-4 d | 5382 | 24.20 |
| 5-7 d | 6963 | 31.30 |
| 8-10 d | 3610 | 16.23 |
| 11-14 d | 479 | 2.15 |
| 15-21 d | 1658 | 7.45 |
| ≥22 d | 2288 | 10.29 |
| Type of opioid among opioid users in the 1-y follow-up period | ||
| Schedule II long acting | 51 | 0.23 |
| Other Schedule II short acting | 218 | 0.98 |
| Oxycodone short acting | 1766 | 7.94 |
| Hydrocodone short acting | 10 894 | 48.98 |
| Schedule III-IV and nalbuphine | 2853 | 12.83 |
| Tramadol | 6461 | 29.05 |
| Pharmacologic use in the baseline period | ||
| NSAIDs | 7619 | 18.62 |
| Benzodiazepines | 5529 | 13.51 |
| Skeletal muscle relaxant | 3585 | 8.76 |
| Oral steroids | 4994 | 12.20 |
| Lumbar procedures (within the first 30 d of index date) | ||
| Lumbar radiographs | 14 085 | 34.41 |
| Lumbar advanced imaging (MRI or CT) | 3902 | 0.53 |
| Lumbar injections | 301 | 0.74 |
| Physician office visits with low back pain diagnosis (within the first 30 d of index date) | 36 041 | 88.06 |
| ED visit with low back pain diagnosis (within the first 30 d of index date) | 4719 | 11.53 |
CT, computed tomography; ED, emergency department; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; NA, not applicable; NSAIDs, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.
a
Primary long-term opioid use definition.
b
Sensitivity long-term opioid use definition.