Table 5.
Summary of studies evaluating the effects of CS-based NPs, CMCSNPs, CNPs, and CS-modified metal NPs on the wound closure rate in animal models in terms of the time taken to achieve almost complete wound closure.
| NP formulation | Active ingredient | Encapsulation efficiency | Diameter | Surface charge | Wound Model (Animal Model) | Initial Wound Size | Time Taken to Achieve >80% Wound Closure | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Blank CS-based NPs | ||||||||
| CSNPa | – | – | 77nm† | > +30mV | Diabetic pressure ulcer (Male Sprague-Dawley rat) |
15 mm diameter | • Control (>21 d) • Oregano + Turmeric + CSNP ointment (15 d) • Oregano + Turmeric + CSNP hydrogel (>21 d) • Oregano + Turmeric + CSNP nanofibre (15 d) |
[112] |
| CSNPa | – | – | 208.40 ± 15.70 nm† | +24.20 ± 3.90 mV | Full-thickness wound (Female Sprague-Dawley rat) |
20 mm diameter | • Control (>14 d) • CS-calcium alginate hydrogel (9 d) • CSNP-loaded calcium alginate hydrogel (7 d) |
[75] |
| Therapeutic compound loaded CS-based NPs | ||||||||
| CSNPf | CDX | 84.25% ± 0.02% | 408.30 ± 53.17 nm† | +22.80 ± 0.57 mV | S. aureus infected full-thickness wound (Male albino rat) |
5 mm diameter | • Control (>5 d) • CDX in situ gel (>5 d) • CDX-loaded CSNP in situ gel (5 d) |
[118] |
| Alginate-coated CS nanogela | SSD | 41.34 ±% | 697.19 nm† | −29.92 mV | Burn wound (Female rat) |
– | • Control (> 10 d) • SSD-loaded alginate-coated CS nanogels (> 10 d) |
[171] |
| CSNPa | QUE | 90.00% ± 3.30% | 361.16 ± 9.72 nm† | – | Full-thickness wound (Male Wistar rat) |
≈400 mm2 | • Control (14 d) • QUE (14 d) • CSNP (14 d) • QUE-loaded CSNP (14 d) |
[150] |
| CSNPa | VAC | 51.70% ± 1.70% | 216.60 ± 10.10 nm† | +37.10 ± 1.20 mV | Full-thickness wound (Sprague-Dawley rat) |
10 mm diameter | • Control (10 d) • VAC (7 d) • CSNP (7 d) • VAC-loaded CSNP (7 d) |
[149] |
| CSNPa | GA | 73.20% ± 2.10% | 252.90 ± 3.09 nm† | +33.50 ± 0.30 mV | Excision wound (Male Wistar rat) | 2.0 × 2.0 cm2 | • Control (>16 d) • Collagen-fibrin scaffold containing GA-loaded CSNP (12 d) |
[143] |
| CSNPa | CUR | – | 196.40 nm† | +30.30 mV | Diabetic wound (Male Wistar rat) | 2.0 × 2.0 cm2 | • Control (>15 d) • Collagen-alginate scaffold containing CUR-loaded CSNP (15 d) |
[173] |
| CSNPa | CUR | 77.20% | 91.28 ± 4.30 nm† | – | Diabetic wound (Sprague-Dawley rat) | 20 mm diameter | • Control (14 d) • CUR-loaded CSNP (7 d) |
[148] |
| Gelatin/CSNPc | EGCG | 45.80 ± 3.70% | 236.60 ± 7.80 nm† | +28.90 ± 1.20 mV | S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa infected full-thickness wound (Male Sprague-Dawley rat) |
1.0 × 1.0 cm2 | • Control (>12 d) • EGCG-loaded gelatin/CSNP + Activated carbon with gentamicin + γ-PGA/gelatin hydrogel (12 d) |
[129] |
| CS/γ-PGA/pluronic/ CUR NPh | CUR | 52.80 ± 4.70% | 193.10 ± 8.90 nm† | +20.60 ± 2.40 mV | Full-thickness wound (Male Sprague-Dawley rat) |
1.0 × 1.0 cm2 | • Control (12 d) • CS dressing (12 d) • CUR-loaded CS dressing (12 d) • CS dressing containing CS/γ-PGA/pluronic/ CUR NP (9 d) |
[94] |
| CS-lecithin micellesg | TQ | 98.77% | 63.76 ± 14.78 nm† | – | Full-thickness wound (Balb/c mice) |
1.0 × 1.0 cm2 | • Control (>16 d) • TQ (16 d) • TQ-loaded CS-lecithin micelles (12 d) • TQ-loaded CS-lecithin micelle hydrogel (12 d) |
[172] |
| CUR-COS nanoplexi | CUR | – | 140 ± 7 nm† | – | Full-thickness wound (Male mice) |
8 mm diameter | • Control (7 d) • CUR (7 d) • CUR-COS nanoplex (5 d) |
[102] |
| CSNPa | CUR | 91.97% | 257.70 ± 2.14 nm† | +30 ± 14 mV | Full-thickness wound (Male Wistar rat) | ≈500 mm2 | • Control (>21 d) • CUR (21 d) • CSNP (>21 d) • CUR-loaded CSNP (21 d) |
[174] |
| Gelatin/CSNPc | EGCG & Ascorbic acid | 68.39 ± 2.60% | 286.78 ± 3.02 nm† | +29.90 ± 0.59 mV | Diabetic full-thickness wound (Male ICR mice) | 6 mm diameter | • Control (>10 d) • EGCG (10 d) • CSNP (10 ds) • EGCG-loaded gelatin/CSNP (8 d) |
[170] |
| CSNPa | CUR | 93.00 ± 5.00% | 359 ± 65 nm† | −10.70 ± 0.10 mV | Full-thickness wound (Male Wistar rat) |
1.5 × 1.5 cm2 | • Control (>14 d) • CSNP-loaded PCL-gelatin nanofibre (>14 d) • CUR-loaded CSNP (>14 d) • PCL-gelatin nanofibre containing CUR-loaded CSNP (14 d) |
[156] |
| CSNPa | Insulin | 77% | 294.50 ± 21.92 nm† | +17.89 ± 0.74 mV | Full-thickness wound (Male Wistar rat) |
1.5 × 1.5 cm2 | • Control (>14 d) • PCL-collagen scaffold containing insulin-loaded CSNP (14 d) |
[130] |
| CSNPa | GM-CSF | 97.40 ± 1.68% | 366.90 ± 9.15 nm† | +43.52 ± 2.39 mV | Full-thickness wound (Male Wistar rat) |
1.5 × 1.5 cm2 | • Control (>13 d) • CSNP-loaded cellulose nanocrystal-hyaluronic acid composite (8 d) • Cellulose nanocrystal-hyaluronic acid composite containing GM-CSF-loaded CSNP (8 d) |
[175] |
| Lecithin/CSNPg | MEL | 27% | 160.43 ± 4.45 nm† | +25.00 ± 0.57 mV | Diabetic full-thickness wound (Wistar rat) | 9 mm diameter | • Control (>14 d) • MEL (>14 d) • Lecithin/CSNP (14 d) • MEL-loaded lecithin/CSNP (14 days) |
[166] |
| CSNPa | Insulin | 97.19% ± 2.18% | 245.90 ± 25.46 nm† | +39.30 ± 4.88 mV | Diabetic full-thickness wound (Female Wistar rat) | 8 mm diameter | • Insulin (>14 d) • CSNP (>14 d) • Insulin-loaded CSNP (>14 d) |
[176] |
| CSNPa | GM-CSF | 80.15% ± 0.56% | 400 nm† | – | Full-thickness wound (Male Wistar rat) |
20 mm diameter | • Control (16 d) • CSNP-loaded PCL scaffold (14 d) • PCL scaffold containing (G-CSF)-loaded CSNP (12 d) |
[177] |
| CMCSNPs | ||||||||
| CMCSNPd | OH30 | 82.46% ± 1.11% | 258.70 ± 13.30 nm† |
+30.20 ± 5.10 mV | Full-thickness wound (Female Kunming mice) |
7 mm diameter | • Control (15 d) • OH30 (15 d) • CMCSNP (15 d) • OH30-loaded CMCSNP (10 d) |
[120] |
| Conjugated LA-CMCSNPg | rhEGF | 82.43% ± 3.14% | 155.30 ± 4.62 nm† |
−23.30 ± 0.37 mV | Full-thickness wound (Rat) |
2.54 cm2 | • Control (14 d) • rhEGF (11 d) • LA-CMCSNP (14 d) • rhEGF-loaded LA-CMCSNP (7 d) |
[169] |
| CMCSNPe | OH30 | 92.14% ± 1.05% | 164.60 ± 5.00 nm† | −37.60 ± 1.50 mV | Full-thickness wound (Female Kunming mice) |
7 mm diameter | • Control (12 d) • CMCSNP (9 d) • OH30-loaded CMCSNP (6 d) |
[121] |
| CNPs | ||||||||
| CNPg | – | – | 14 ± 3 nm§ | – | Full-thickness wound (Male Sprague-Dawley rat) |
10 mm diameter | • Control (>9 d) • CNP Cryogel (9 d) • CNP Aerogel (>9 d) |
[158] |
| CS-modified metal NPs | ||||||||
| CS-modified ZnONP|| | ZnO | – | ∼180 nm¶ | – | Full-thickness wound (Sprague-Dawley rat) |
1.5 × 1.5 cm2 | • Control (>14 d) • CS-ZnONP-loaded CO film (10 d) |
[131] |
| CS-AgNP# | Ag | – | 5 – 50 nm§ | – | Full-thickness wound (Male Kunming mice) |
10 mm diameter | • Control (>14 d) • CS-Bletilla striata (BG) sponge (14 d) • CS-BG + CS-AgNP bilayer sponge (14 d) |
[132] |
| PVA/CS-AgNP# | Ag | – | 190 – 200 nm†,§ | – | Full-thickness wound (Male Wistar rat) |
1.5 × 1.0 cm2 | • Control (12 d) • CS (10 d) • CS-PVA (10 d) • PVA/CS-AgNP (9 d) |
[134] |
| COS-AgNP# | Ag | – | 15.70 ± 4.73 nm§ | – | Full-thickness wound (Sprague-Dawley rat) |
5.0 × 4.0 cm2 | • Control (12 d) • PVA/COS/AgNO3 nanofibre • PVA/COS-AgNP nanofibre (7 d) |
[123] |
| PVA/COS-AgNP# | Ag | – | – | – | Full-thickness wound (Male Sprague-Dawley rat) |
≈200 mm2 | • Control (15 d) • PVA/COS-AgNP nanofibre (12 d) |
[159] |
| MMT-CS-AuNP# | Au | – | 10.07 ± 2.34 nm† | – | MRSA infected full-thickness wounds (New Zealand rabbits) |
25 mm diameter | • Control (>16 d) • CS-AuNP-loaded gelatin (16 d) • MMT-CS-AuNP-loaded gelatin (16 d) |
[135] |
| CS-AgNP# | Ag | – | 15 nm§ | – | Burn wound (Male Sprague-Dawley rat) |
10 mm diameter | • Control (14 d) • CS-AgNP (7 d) |
[141] |
| CS-AgNP# | Ag | – | 22.80 nm† | −45.90 Mv (DLS) | Abrasion wound (Male Wistar rat) | 1.5 × 1.5 cm2 | • Control (21 d) • CS film (21 d) • CS-AgNP-loaded CS film (5 d) |
[124] |
| CS-AgNP# | Ag | – | 10 - 30 nm§ | – | MRSA infected full-thickness wound (Balb/c mice) |
1.5 × 1.5 cm2 | • Control (14 d) • AgNP (10 d) • PVP-AgNP (10 ds) • CS-AgNP (10 d) |
[137] |
| CS-SER-AgNP# | Ag | – | 96.93 ± 0.51 nm† | −0.42 ± 0.12mV | S. aureus infected burn wound (Male Sprague-Dawley rat) |
≈400 mm2 | • Moxifloxacin (>14 d) • CS-SER-AgNP film (7 d) |
[138] |
| CS-SER-AgNP# | Ag | – | 96.93 ± 0.51 nm† | −0.42 ± 0.12mV | P. aeruginosa infected burn wound (Male Sprague-Dawley rat) |
≈400 mm2 | • Moxifloxacin (>14 d) • CS-SER-AgNP film (14 d) |
[138] |
| CS-SER-AgNP# | Ag | – | 239.90 ± 1.56 nm† | +37.00 ± 3.60 mV | Full-thickness wound (Wistar rat) |
10 mm diameter | • Control (>14 d) • CS-SER-AgNP (>14 d) |
[139] |
| TMC-immobilised AgNP‡ | Ag | – | – | – | Full-thickness wound (Mice) |
– | • Control (>7 d) • CS (>7 d) • TMC (>7 d) • TMC-AgNP (>7 d) |
[110] |
f
Prepared using W/O/W type double emulsification.
g
Prepared using self-assembly.
h
Prepared using emulsification solvent diffusion method and homogenisation.
i
Prepared using polyelectrolyte complex method.
||
Prepared using precipitation method.
#
Prepared using chemical reduction method.
‡
Prepared using template method.
†
Size measured using DLS.
¶
Size measured using SEM.
§
Size measured using TEM