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Iontophoresis for transdermal permeation. (A) The principle of iontophoresis using an Ag/AgCl electrode system. (B), (C) Commercial formulations using iontophoresis. A− = anionic drugs, Cl− = chloride ions in the drug reservoir, D+ = cationic drugs, FDA = Food and Drug Administration, Na+ = sodium ions in the drug reservoir.
