Table 4.

Impact of digital interventions on antimicrobial use, appropriateness and clinical outcomes

Author	Antimicrobial use	Appropriateness	Clinical outcomes
Baysari et al.26	Decreased	Increased.a Appropriate use of antimicrobials: pooled RR 1.49; 95% CI 1.23–1.81; P < 0.0001.	No significant effect on mortalitya or length of stay.a Mortality: pooled RR 0.91; 95% CI 0.82–1.00; P = 0.06. Length of stay: pooled mean difference −0.84; 95% CI −2.43 to 0.76; P = 0.30.
Carracedo Martinez et al.18	Decreaseda	Increased.a Accuracy of empirical treatment: random OR 1.93; 95% CI 1.21–3.08; P < 0.0711. Compliance with guidelines: random OR 4.22; 95% CI 1.89–9.42; P < 0.0001.	No significant effect on mortalitya or length of stay.a Mortality: random OR 0.98; 95% CI 0.84–1.14; P = 0.2321. Length of stay: SMD −0.24; 95% CI −0.49 to 0.02; P < 0.0001.
Cresswell et al.27	Decreased	Increased	Inconsistent
Curtis et al.19	Decreased	Increased.a Adequacy of antibiotic coverage: OR 2.11; 95% CI 1.67–2.66; P = 0.00001.	Reduction in mortality.a Mortality: OR 0.85, 95% CI 0.75–0.96; P = 0.01.
Helou et al.28	Decreased	Inconsistent	NR
Laka et al.20	Decreased	Increased.a Appropriateness of antimicrobial therapy: pooled OR 2.28; 95% CI 1.82–2.86; P = 0.000.	Reduction in mortality.a Mortality: pooled OR 0.82; 95% CI 0.73–0.91; P = 0.045.
Rawson et al.29	NR	Inconsistent	Inconsistent
Rittman et al.30	Decreased	Increased	Inconsistent

NR, not reported; RR, risk ratio; SMD, standardized mean difference.

^aResults are based on meta-analysis.