Table 2.
Pro-inflammatory cytokine response to CCHFV: Interleukins
| Cytokine | Infected cell/species | Lethal | Sample | Level in acute infection | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| IL-1α | Cell (dDC, LC) | − | Cord blood | NSF | (Rodriguez et al., 2018) |
| IL-1β | Human (Turkey) | Y | Serum | + | (Papa et al., 2016b) |
| Mouse (STAT-1, IFNAR) |
Y/N | Plasma/serum, liver/spleen | + | (Bente et al., 2010), (Hawman et al., 2019), (Welch et al., 2019) | |
| Cell (DC, dDC, LC) | − | PBMC/cord blood | NSF | (Connolly-Andersen et al., 2009), (Rodriguez et al., 2018) |
|
| IL-2 | Human (Turkey) | Y | Serum | NSF | (Papa et al., 2016b) |
| Mouse (IFNAR) | N | Serum | + | (Hawman et al., 2019) | |
| IL-3 | Mouse (IFNAR) | N | Serum | + | (Hawman et al., 2019) |
| IL-6 | Human (Turkey, Albania) | Y/N | Serum | +* | (Ergonul et al., 2006), (Papa et al., 2006), (Ergönül et al., 2017), (Papa et al., 2016b) |
| NHP | Y/N | Serum | + | (Haddock et al., 2018), (Cross et al., 2020), (Smith et al., 2019) | |
| Mouse (STAT-1, IFNAR) |
Y | Plasma/Serum | + | (Bente et al., 2010), (Hawman et al., 2019) | |
| Cell (Mø, DC, dDC, LC) | − | PBMC/cord blood | + | (Peyrefitte et al., 2010), (Connolly-Andersen et al., 2009), (Peyrefitte et al., 2010), (Rodriguez et al., 2018) | |
| IL-7 | Cell (dDC, LC) | − | Cord Blood | NSF | (Rodriguez et al., 2018) |
| IL-8 | Human (Turkey) | Y/N | Serum | +, +/− | (Ergönül et al., 2017), (Papa et al., 2016b) |
| Cell (DC, dDC) | − | PBMC/cord blood | + | (Peyrefitte et al., 2010), (Rodriguez et al., 2018) | |
| Cell (DC, LC) | − | PBMC/cord blood | NSF | (Connolly-Andersen et al., 2009), (Rodriguez et al., 2018) |
|
| IL-9 | Human (Turkey) | Y/N | Serum | + | (Papa et al., 2016b) |
| Mouse (IFNAR) | N | Serum | + | (Hawman et al., 2019) | |
| IL-12 | Human (Turkey, Kosovo) |
Y/N | Serum | NSF | (Saksida et al., 2010), (Papa et al., 2016b) |
| Mouse (IFNAR) | N | Serum | NSF | (Hawman et al., 2019) | |
| Cell (dDC, LC) | − | Cord blood | NSF | (Rodriguez et al., 2018) | |
| IL-13 | Human (Turkey) | Y/N | Serum | NSF | (Papa et al., 2016b) |
| Mouse (IFNAR) | N | Serum | NSF | (Hawman et al., 2019) | |
| IL-15 | Human (Turkey) | Y/N | Serum | + | (Papa et al., 2016b) |
| NHP | Y/N | Serum | + | (Haddock et al., 2018), (Cross et al., 2020), (Smith et al., 2019) | |
| Cell (dDC, LC) | − | Cord blood | NSF | (Rodriguez et al., 2018) | |
| IL-17A | NHP | Y/N | Serum | + | (Haddock et al., 2018) |
| Mouse (IFNAR) | N | Serum | + | (Hawman et al., 2019) | |
| IL-18 | NHP | N | Serum | + | (Cross et al., 2020), (Smith et al., 2019) |
DC, dendritic cell; dDC dermal dendritic cell; IFNAR, type I interferon (IFN) receptor-deficient mice; LC, Langerhans cell; Mø, macrophage; −, not applicable; STAT-1, STAT1-deficient mice; NHP, non-human primate (all NHP data are from Cynomolgus macaques); NSF, no significant findings; +, elevated; +/−, can be elevated; Y, reported in lethal disease; Y/N, reported in lethal and non-lethal disease; N, reported in non-lethal disease;
*
, significantly higher in fatal CCHF than in non-fatal CCHF.