TABLE 1.

An overview of the currently available treatments and treatment options under investigation for DRE patients.

	Epilepsy surgery	VNS	DBS	RNS	eTNS	rTMS	tDCS	tVNS	FUS
Responder rate°,*	±70%	45–65%	±70%	±65%	30–50%	±30%	±50%	25–30%	NA
FDA approved for epilepsy	NA	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No	No
Invasiveness	High	Moderate	High	High	No	No	No	No	No
Spatial targeting resolution	High	NA	High	NA	NA	Low	Low	Low	High
Targetable brain regions*	Deep and superficial cortex (determined by target location)	NA	Deep and superficial cortex	NA	NA	Superficial cortex ∼1–3.5 cm	Undefined	NA	Deep cortex ∼10–15 cm
References	Englot and Chang, 2014	Elliott et al., 2011; Toffa et al., 2020	Salanova, 2018; Foutz and Wong, 2021	Hartshorn and Jobst, 2018	DeGiorgio et al., 2013; Pack, 2013; Gil-López et al., 2020	Bystritsky et al., 2011; Deng et al., 2013, 2014; Cooper et al., 2017	San-Juan et al., 2017	Bauer et al., 2016	Bystritsky et al., 2011

Responder rate = the percentage of patients with at least 50% seizure frequency reduction, °for epilepsy surgery percentage of patients who become seizure-free. VNS, vagus nerve stimulation; DBS, deep brain stimulation; RNS, responsive neurostimulation; eTNS, external trigeminal nerve stimulation; rTMS, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation; tVNS, transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation; FUS, focused ultrasound; NA, not applicable. *Numbers reported in systematic reviews or derived from recent trials (cfr. References in last row).