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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2022 Jul 4.
Published in final edited form as: Dev Psychobiol. 2019 Dec 10;62(5):573–590. doi: 10.1002/dev.21943

Figure 3: Observations (Focal Sampling) of Pup-Directed Behavior in the Neonatal Period (PND1–3).

Figure 3:

Four focal samples were collected (2 mornings, 2 afternoons) in the neonatal period and averaged for a measure of pup-directed care demonstrated by mothers, fathers and sisters. Care from mothers in the biparental care (BPC, red), mother-plus-alloparent (MPA, blue), and mother only (MON, grey) conditions did not significantly differ across conditions. Sisters in the MPA condition demonstrated significantly more care than fathers in the BPC condition. The cumulative care received by pups from mothers and fathers in the BPC condition was also significantly less than the cumulative care received by pups reared by mothers and sisters in the MPA condition; while the care received by pups reared by mothers alone in the MON condition was significantly less than the cumulative care received by pups in both the BPC and MPA conditions.