Figure 3. The challenges after vascular graft implantation. After implantation, insufficient endothelialisation and aggressive proliferation of SMCs over time can lead to IH and thrombosis. Inflammatory cells play an important role in regulating the functions of ECs and SMCs. EC: endothelial cell; EPC: endothelial progenitor cell; IH: intimal hyperplasia; SMC: smooth muscle cells. Created with BioRender.com.