Table 3.

Examples of non-enveloped virus transmission via hands leading to nosocomial outbreaks and examples of hand rub efficacy in animal husbandry

Virus	Transmission mode	References
Adenoviruses species A–C, E–G, Species D types 8, 37, 53, 54, 64	Respiratory transmission as well as via hands and surfaces Epidemic keratoconjunctivitis transmission predominantly via hands and surfaces; types 4 and 7 also via swimming pools	[58, 59] [58, 60]
Aphthovirus	This foot-and-mouth virus may be transferred between animals without virucidal hand rub via animal care personnel	[61]
Bocavirus	Mainly respiratory transmission, but also via hands and surfaces	[62]
Coxsackievirus group A types 1–22, 24, group B types 1–6	Transmission mainly via hands; hand, foot and mouth disease worldwide more than 100 outbreaks in nurseries, but also nosocomial infections in adults;	[63–65]
Echovirus serotypes 1–9, 11–21 24–27, 29–33	Transmission predominantly via direct or indirect oral contact, but also via hands	[66]
Enterovirus A 71; D28, 70	Respiratory transmission and through hands; A 71 epidemic paralysis	[62, 64]
HAV	Transmission predominantly fecal–oral via hands by contact with an infected person in cases of inadequate hand antisepsis and inadequate terminal cleaning	[42, 67–78]
HEV	Transmission predominantly fecal–oral via hands, spread is proven through person-to-person contact in genotype-1 infections	[79, 80]
Human papillomavirus	Mainly sexual transmission, but also via hands and vaginal ultrasound probes	[81–84]
Human rhinovirus	Mainly respiratory transmission, but also via hands, especially in an outbreak	[62, 85]
Norovirus	In 18.5% of analyzed outbreaks, virus transmission by HCW via hands	[86]
	After primary food-borne outbreak, further transmission by staff	[87]
	Interruption of an outbreak after changing the virucidally active ingredients	[46]
Parvovirus B19	Mainly respiratory transmission, but also via hands, transmissibility in outbreak 31%	[88, 89]
Rotavirus	Outbreak in adults with transmission between patients via hands	[90]
Poliovirus	Transmission fecal–oral via hands and/or droplets or aerosols	[91]