Fig. 6.

Neuroinflammation, BBB breakdown and related signaling pathways involved in ischemic stroke. DAMPs Damage-associated molecular patterns; AQP4 Aquaporin 4; HMGB1 High-mobility group box protein 1, TLR2 Toll-like receptor 2; TLR4 Toll-like receptor 4; MAPK Mitogen-activated protein kinase; NF-kB Necrosis factor-kB; NLRP3 Nod-like receptor protein-3; MCP-1 monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; MIP Macrophage inflammatory protein; CCL2 Chemokine-chemokine ligand 2; IL-1β Interleukin-1β; IL-6 Interleukin-6; TNF Tumor necrosis factor; BBB Blood-brain barrier; S1PRs Sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor; VCAM Vascular cell adhesion molecule; LFA Lymphocyte Function-associated Antigen; ICAM Intercellular cell adhesion molecule; DC Dendritic cells; MMP Matrix metalloproteinase