Table 1.
Study characteristics
| Study (year published) |
Country (years conducted) |
Study design (sample size) |
Age exposed to malnutrition (age at follow-up if different) | Malnutrition definition (reference population) |
Outcome | Outcome measurement tool |
| Chen et al (2021)18 |
China (2018) |
Cross-sectional study (23 cases, 1270 controls) |
3–5 years | w/h z score ≤2 (WHO) | Cognition/school achievement, Behaviour/mental health | WPPSI-IV SDQ |
| Mwene-Batu et al (2020)19 |
DRC (1988–2019) |
Retrospective cohort (524 cases, 407 controls) |
Median 41 months (median 22 years) |
w/h z score ≤3 (WHO) |
Cognition/school achievement, Behaviour/mental health | MMSE, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, WHODAS |
| Asiki et al (2019)20 |
Uganda (1999–2011) |
Retrospective cohort (12 cases with wasting, 145 cases recovered from wasting, 464 controls) |
2–5 years (13–16 years) |
w/h z score ≤2 (WHO) |
Cognition/school achievement | Parental report of school years achieved |
| Dwivedi et al (2018)21 |
India (2014–15) |
Cross-sectional study (102 cases, 101 controls) |
6–30 months | WHO definition of severe acute malnutrition | Neurodevelopment | DASII (Indian modification of BSID) |
| Kang et al (2018)22 |
Bangladesh (2014), Bhutan (2011), Nepal (2015), Punjab, Pakistan (2016), Sindh, Pakistan (2015) |
Cross-sectional study (31 037 participants) |
36–59 months | w/h z score ≤2 (WHO) |
Neurodevelopment | MICS ECDI |
| Lelijiveld et al (2018)23 |
Malawi (2006–2013) |
Prospective cohort (171 cases, 155 controls) |
Median 21.5 months(IQR 15–32) (9 years) |
w/h<70% of the median (NCHS) | Cognition/school achievement | CANTAB, Parental report of school grade |
| Abessa et al (2017)24 |
Ethiopia (2011–13) |
Cross-sectional study (310 cases, 310 controls) |
Cases—mean 30.7 months (SD 15.2) controls—mean 29.6 months (SD 15.4) | w/h<70% of the median (NCHS), MUAC <110 mm, or bilateral pitting oedema due to malnutrition | Neurodevelopment, behaviour/mental Health |
Denver II, ASQ |
| Sudfeld et al (2015)25 |
Tanzania (2010–14) |
Randomised controlled trial (47 cases, 989 controls) |
18–36 months | w/h z score ≤2 (WHO) |
Neurodevelopment | BSID-III |
| De Grandis et al (2014)26 |
Argentina (not stated) |
Retrospective cohort (25 cases, 28 controls) |
0–2 years (5–12 years) |
w/h z score ≤3 (or <70% expected) (WHO) |
Behaviour/mental Health | Paediatric quality of life inventory |
| Malhi et al (2013)27 |
India (not stated) |
Cross-sectional study (20 cases, 44 controls) |
0–6 years | w/a z-score ≤2 (WHO) |
Neurodevelopment | Indian development inventory |
| Bogale et al (2013)28 |
Ethiopia (2007) |
Cross-sectional study (12 cases, 88 controls) |
61.0 months ±3.0 | w/a z-score ≤2 (WHO) |
Cognition/school achievement | Raven’s CPM, KABC-II |
| Warsito et al (2012)29 |
Indonesia (not stated) |
Cross-sectional study (5 cases, 48 controls) |
3–5 years old | w/h z-score ≤2 (WHO) | Cognition/school achievement | Indonesian Department of National Education-Child Development Instrument |
| Nassar et al (2012)30 |
Egypt (not stated) |
Cross-sectional study (33 cases, 30 controls) |
3–6 years old | Wellcome classification (WHO) |
Cognition/school achievement | Stanford-Binet-Intelligence-Scale (Arabic-translation) Receptive/Expressive/-Total-Language (Arabic-Language-Test) |
| Baker-Henningham et al (2009)31 |
Bangladesh (not stated) |
Cross-sectional study (212 cases, 108 controls) |
6–24 months old | w/a z-score ≤2 (NCHS) |
Behaviour/mental Health | Temperament Questionnaire derived from existing validated instruments (modified by Wachs, Purdue University) |
| El-Khayat et al (2007)32 |
Egypt (2006) |
Cross-sectional study (42 cases, 15 controls) |
6–25 months | w/h z-score ≤2 (WHO) |
Neurodevelopment | BSID-II |
| Liu et al (2004)33 |
Mauritius (1972-) |
Prospective Cohort (235 cases, 807 controls) |
3 years (8,11, 17 years) |
Malnutrition and one of angular stomatitis, kwashiorkor, sparse thin hair, haemoglobin <8.5 g/dL | Behaviour/mental Health | Child Behaviour Questionnaire at age 8, Child Behaviour Checklist at age 11, Revised Behaviour Checklist at Age 17 |
| Liu et al (2003)34 |
Mauritius (1972-) |
Prospective Cohort (253 cases, 837 controls |
3 years (11 years) |
Malnutrition and one of angular stomatitis, kwashiorkor, sparse thin hair, haemoglobin <8.5g/dL | Cognition/school achievement | Bohem Test WISC Academic Tests Holborn-Reading Scale Trail Making Test |
| Drewett et al (2001)35 |
Ethiopia (not stated) |
Prospective Cohort (97 cases, 100 controls) |
2 years | w/a z-score <−1.88 (NCHS) |
Neurodevelopment | BSID |
| Vazir et al (1998)36 |
India (not stated) |
Cross-sectional study (1456 cases, 2212 controls) |
0–6 years | <75% expected w/a (NCHS) |
Neurodevelopment | ICMR Psychosocial Developmental Screening Test |
| Perales et al (1996)37 |
Chile (1987 – not stated) |
Retrospective Cohort (40 cases, 40 controls) |
0–2 years (8–10 years) |
Protein energy malnutrition (defined by Sempe (1979) et al) | Cognition/school achievement | Continuous Performance Task Anstey Domino Test |
| Kaul et al (1995)38 |
India (not stated) |
Cross-sectional study (50 cases, 102 controls) |
0–12 months | Gomez classification—moderate malnutrition (NCHS) |
Neurodevelopment | BSID |
| Barbados Nutrition Study | ||||||
| Hock et al* (2018)39 |
Barbados (1977-not stated) |
Prospective cohort (77 cases, 62 controls) |
0–1 years (40–45 years) |
Gomez classification | Behaviour/mental health | SCID-II-PQ, NEO PI-R FFM |
| Waber (1) et al* (2014)40 |
Barbados (1977–2010) |
Prospective cohort (77 cases, 59 controls) |
0–1 years (38 years) |
Gomez classification | Cognition/school achievement | WASI, WRAT-III |
| Waber (2) et al* (2014)41 |
Barbados (1977–2010) |
Prospective cohort (77 cases, 59 controls) |
0–1 years (38 years) |
Gomez classification | Cognition/school achievement, behaviour/mental Health | WAIS-III, D-KEFS, WRAML-II, Wisconsin card sorting, Metacognitive index, Behavioural regulation index |
| Galler et al* (2013)42 |
Barbados (2006–2010) |
Prospective cohort (77 cases, 57 controls) |
0–1 years (37–43 years) |
Gomez classification | Behaviour/mental health | NEO-PI-R personality inventory |
| Galler (1) et al* (2012)43 |
Barbados (1967–2010) |
Prospective cohort (80 cases, 65 controls) |
0–1 years (40 years) |
Gomez classification | Behaviour/mental Health | CAARS, CPT |
| Galler (2) et al* (2012)44 |
Barbados (1967–1985) |
Prospective cohort (56 cases, 60 controls) |
0–1 years (15 years old) |
Gomez classification | Behaviour/mental Health | Child-Behaviour-Questionnaire, Teacher Behaviour Questionnaire |
| Waber et al* (2011)45 |
Barbados (1967–1985) |
Prospective cohort (57 cases, 60 controls) |
0–1 years (11–18 years) |
Gomez classification | Cognition/school achievement and behaviour/mental health |
WISC, Common entrance examination (local school test), Teacher-Behaviour Questionnaire, School functioning scale Minnesota-General-Adjustment-and Morale-Scale |
| Galler et al* (2011)46 |
Barbados (1967–1985) |
Prospective cohort (109 cases, 107 controls) |
0–1 years (9–17 years) |
Gomez classification | Behaviour/mental health | Barbados-Child-Behaviour-Scale |
| Galler et al* (2010)47 |
Barbados (1967–1985) |
Prospective cohort (116 cases, 61 controls) |
0–1 years (11–17 years old) |
Gomez classification | Behaviour/mental health | Minnesota-General-Adjustment-and Morale-Scale |
*Studies are drawn from the same Barbados Nutrition Study Cohort.
ASQ, Ages and Stages Questionnaire; BSID, Bayley scales of infant development; CAARS, Attention-domain: Conners-ADHD-Rating-Scales; CANTAB, Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery; CPT, Conners-Continuous-Performance Test; DASII, Developmental Assessment Scale of Indian Infants; D-KEFS, Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System; DRC, Democratic Republic of Congo; ICMR, Indian Council Medical Research Psychosocial Developmental Screening Test; KABC-II, Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-II; MDAT, Malawi Developmental Assessment Tool; MICS ECDI, Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey Early Child Development Index; MMSE, Mini Mental State Exam; MUAC, Mid Upper Arm Circumference; NCHS, National Centre for Health Statistics reference population; NEO PI-R FFM, NEO Personality Inventory-Revised derived Five-Factor Model; Raven’s CPM, Raven’s Coloured Progressive Matrices; SCID-II-PQ, Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis II Personality Disorders Personality Questionnaire; SDQ, Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire; WAIS-III, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-III; WASI, Adult IQ: Weschler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence – Vocabulary and Matrix Reasoning subsets; w/h, Weight-for-Height; WHO, WHO reference population; WHODAS, WHO Disability Assessment Schedule; WISC, Weschler Intelligence Scale; WPPSI-IV, Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Fourth Edition; WRAML-II, Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning-II; WRAT-III, Academic achievement: Wide Range Achievement Test-III-Reading Spelling and Calculation subsets.