Table 1. Comparative Analysis of Various Types of Biosensors.

biosensors	optical	electrical	mechanical	electrochemical	photoelectrochemical
principle	optical property changes on sensor’s surface after analyte binding	current or voltage changes on electrode after analyte binding	oscillation at specific resonant frequency that changes by increasing mass on surface	transduce target molecule into digital electrochemical signals	charge-transfer process between photoactive material, an electrode, and an analyte under light illumination
analytes	enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, aptamers	antibody, affirmer, or aptamer	microbial cell, antibody, nucleic acids	enzymes, antibodies, DNA, aptamers	enzymes, antibodies, DNA, aptamers
change detected	optical properties, fluorescence, and absorbance	current or voltage changes on the electrode	resonant frequency of crystal due to change in mass	redox reaction/electrical conductivity as a result of change in ion concentration	charge transfer under light illumination
technique used	SPR or LSPR	potentiometric	QCM	amperometric
	colorimetric	conductometric	cantilever technology	impedimetric
		FET
		voltammetric
		impedance
advantages	simple	multiplex label-free detection	high sensitivity	high selectivity and sensitivity over optical biosensors	high sensitivity and lower background signals to analyze the target
	cost-effective	high specificity and sensitivity	instant response time	lower purchase cost
	rapid detection method without analytical equipment		simple miniaturization process	rapid results
			high throughput	better signal-to-noise ratio
limitations	low sensitivity	translation to clinical samples	requires temperature control	low LOD over other biosensors
	limited capability of a multiplex	buffered solution may interfere	sensitive to sample matrix effect	inconsistent reproductivity
				no specific binding
sensitivity and precision	depends on NMs binding with biosensor	depends on NMs binding with biosensor	depends on NMs binding with biosensor	depends on NMs binding with biosensor	depends on NMs binding with biosensor