FIGURE 4.

Overview of the functional implications of astaxanthin in modulating neuroinflammation. Astaxanthin counteracts oxidative stress-induced damage to neurons and glial cells. Astaxanthin can also reduce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the brain and retard the M1 polarization of microglia. Additionally, astaxanthin protects BBB integrity and inhibits the production and infiltration of inflammatory cytokines derived from peripheral inflammation. OL, oligodendrocytes. The red arrows represent processes of neuroinflammation; the black arrows represent promotion, protection or transportation; the lines with T-shaped ends represent inhibition.