Figure 3.

Schematic representation of the molecular pathways affected by mycotoxins in a (cardio)myocyte. Mycotoxins (AFB₁, OTA, T-2, DON, and ZON) show toxicity on a (cardio)myocyte, principally by excessive oxidative stress and ROS accumulation. Alterations in mitochondrial bioenergetics, mitochondrial dysfunction, transcription of stress/apoptotic genes, and ER stress orchestrate the cell damage and apoptosis. Dysregulation of the antioxidative system and protective pathways (autophagy) would enhance these mechanisms of toxic myopathy. Down- and upstream signaling pathways that might be affected by mycotoxins in a myocyte are still unknown to be represented here; hence it is highly suggested to be determined by further studies. Green and red arrows (blocked line) indicate activation and inhibition, respectively.