Table 2.
The summarized list of stress-related immune pathways modulated by mycotoxins at very low doses; with possibly toxic action at the vascular level.
| Mycotoxin | Target cell | Altered key process | Referenes |
|---|---|---|---|
| AFB1 | Neutrophil Monocyte Lymphocyte |
Caspase cascade pathway | (55) |
| Monocyte | TLR pathway | (56) | |
| PBMCs | (57) | ||
| DCs | (58) | ||
| Macrophage | Autophagic process Phagocytosis-independent innate immune mechanism (extracellular traps) |
(59) | |
| OTA | Epithelial cell | MAPK/ JNK pathway | (60) |
| T-2 | Epithelial cell | Caspase cascade/independent pathways | (61) |
| Stem cell | Caspase cascade pathway | (62) | |
| Neuroblastoma cell | MAPK pathway | (63) | |
| Monocyte | Differentiation process | (64) | |
| Macrophage | TLR pathway | (65) | |
| DON | Fibroblast/ Epithelial cell | Caspase cascade pathway | (66, 67) |
| Epithelial cell | NF-κB pathway | (68) | |
| Macrophage | NF-κB/ TLR pathway | (69) | |
| ZON | Macrophage | TLR pathway | (70) |
| Epithelial cell | MAPK pathway | (71) | |
| Leukemic cell | Caspase cascade pathway | (72) |
AFB1, aflatoxin B1; PBMCs, peripheral blood mononuclear cells; TLR, toll-like receptor; DCs, dendritic cells; OTA, ochratoxin A; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; JNK, c-Jun N-terminal kinase; DON, deoxynivalenol; NF-κB, Nuclear Factor-Kappa B; ZON, zearalenone.