Table 1.
Immunobiochemical markers of severe burn injury and burn sepsis.
| Markers | Biomarker Level (Parameter) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|
| Cytokines (proinflammatory IL-1α, IL-6, TNFα) | Levels of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) increase within 24–48 h after a burn Levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1 receptor antagonist, IL-4, IL-10, IL-11, and IL-13) are reduced (in cases with sepsis levels that are significantly higher than cases without sepsis) |
[27,30] |
| C-reactive protein (CRP) | Levels increased in cases with sepsis | [34,35,36] |
| Procalcitonin (PCT) and presepsin | Levels increased in cases with sepsis | [32,38,39,40,41,42,43] |
| Growth factors (IGFBR-1, IGFBR-3, YGF, bFGF, IGF-1, TGF) | Levels increased | [30,31,32,33] |
| Matrix metalloproteinases (MMP-1, 2, 3, 9, etc.) | Activity increased | [44,45,46,47,48] |
| Reactive oxygen species (ROS) | Levels increased due to oxidative stress | [49,50,51,52] |
| Nitric oxide (NO) | Levels increased | [19,53] |
| Parameters of the hemostasis system (platelets, fibrinogen, D-dimer, protamine sulfate, fibrin degradation products, activated partial thromboplastin time, prothrombin time, and thrombin time) |
Abnormal coagulation parameters: - thrombocytopenia 24–48 h after burn; - hypercoagulability and was attributed to high levels of fibrinogen and thromboplastin due to tissue lysis; Signs of coagulopathy and DIC syndrome |
[54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61] |
| Inflammatory markers (IL-1β, Il-6, IL-8, TNFα, INFχ, IL12h70, Il-17, Il 2, Il-4, IL-5, IL-10, IL-13, IL-7 | Levels increased | [61,62] |
| Stress marker (adrenaline, noradrenaline, dopamine, cortisol) | Levels increased | [63,64,65] |
| Hormones (leptin, progesterone, insulin, thyroid hormones) | Levels increased; levels of thyroid hormones lowered | [61,66] |
| Structural proteins (proteasome, type IV collagen, lfminin-5, pyrodinoline, deoxypyrodinoline) | Levels vary depending on the severity of the burn injury and sepsis | [67,68,69] |