Table A1.

Ethogram of behaviours for Pongo abelii.

Category	Code	Description
Foraging	F	Consumption of water or plant matter (e.g., leaves, soft vine barks, soft stalks, and round fleshy parts). Marked by insertion of plant matter into the mouth with the use of the hands. It starts with the use of the hands to pick plant matter from a bunch or pile, to pick apart plant matter and to break plant matter into small pieces. The hands are then used to bring plant matter into the mouth. This is followed by chewing (i.e., open and close movement of the jaw whilst the plant matter is either partially or fully in the mouth). This is culminated by swallowing; that is, the plant matter is no longer in the mouth nor outside the animal and the animal moves to get more. The bout stops when there is a pause in the behaviour >3 s or another behaviour is performed.
Brachiation	BR	Arm-over-arm movement along bars or climbing structures. The orangutan is suspended fully from only one or two hands (Full BR) or with the support of a third limb (Partial BR). The movement is slow and there is no air time between alternating grasps on the bars (i.e., at no point will the orangutan be mid-air without support).
Locomotion	L	The orangutan moves with the use of limbs from one point in the exhibit to the next point at least within a metre away from the origin. The orangutan may end up in the same location as the origin, but along the path should have gone at least a metre away from the origin. The orangutan may be locomoting bipedally or quadrupedally on plane surfaces such as platforms and the ground. If the orangutan is on climbing structures but is supported by all four limbs, the movement is classified as locomotion.
Object Play	OP	Repetitive manipulation and inspection (visual and/or tactile) of inedible objects which are not part of another individual’s body. The individual is visibly engaged (i.e., the facial/head orientation is on the object being manipulated). Inspection or manipulation is done by mouth, hands or feet. Movement may appear like other behavioural categories but the size/speed of movements of limbs are exaggerated.
Fiddling	FD	Slow and repetitive manipulation of an object with no apparent purpose or engagement (i.e., The orangutan may appear like staring in space and not paying attention to the movement). The orientation of the head must not be facing the object being manipulated. Manipulation may be subtle repetitive finger movements along the object being manipulated.
Inactive	I	The animal stays in the same spot or turns around but does not go beyond a metre from origin. The animal is not engaged in self-directed behaviours, foraging, hiding, defecation, urination, scanning behaviours, or social interaction. The animal may be lying prone, supine, sideways, upright sitting, or quadrupedal, but remains stationary.
Affiliative	AF	The animal engages in social interactions with another individual such as allogrooming, begging for food, food sharing, hugging, tolerance. Behaviours would appear to maintain bond as seen by maintenance of close proximity. These behaviours do not have audible vocalizations or vigorous movements.
Agonistic	AG	Social interactions with individuals where distance from each other is the outcome unless there is a physical confrontation or fight. The animal may be engaged in, rejection of begging, or avoidance, or vigorously grabbing food from the grasp of the receiver of the interaction. Characterized by vigorous movements towards or away from the other individual.
Keeper Directed	KD	Staring, following, locomoting towards the keeper, or obtaining food from the keeper. Attention/ head orientation must be placed on the keeper. The keeper should be visible around the perimeter of the exhibit or in the keeper’s cage.
Guest Directed	GD	Staring, following, or moving towards the guests. Attention must be placed on the guest. Volunteers (humans in white shirts and beige trousers are considered guests)
Self Directed Baby Directed	SD BD	Inspection of hair, body, or mouth with hands, feet, mouth or with the use of water or objects such as sticks or non-food enrichment. The body part being inspected is prod repeatedly by any of the abovementioned implements. The animal may scratch, squeeze, poke, or pinch the body part being inspected. Attention does not have to be on the body part. Physical inspection of infant offspring, including limbs, face, and hair of baby, using mouth and/or hands. Attention does not have to on the infant or their body part(s).
Tech Directed	TD	The animal uses or waits at a computer touchscreen enrichment.
Hiding	H	The animal covers itself with a blanket, a leaf, or goes in the bucket such that only a portion of the head is visible. The animal remains stationary.
Urination	U	Marked by the presence of darker wet spot on the ground. Urine flows from the hind of the orangutan. The orangutan may be hanging on climbing structures using any combination of limbs or may be sitting at the edge of the moat, platform, or on a bar with the hind facing where the urine would land.
Object Manipulation	OM	Moving objects with limbs or the mouth from one point in the enclosure to the other point. There is a very clear purpose that usually stops once the purpose has been achieved (e.g., filling a water bottle).
Scanning	SC	The animal makes a short sweeping movement of the head and the eyes stay forward following the gaze. The attention has to be on anything outside the exhibit. The animal may be sitting on the floor or bipedally/quadrupedally locomoting towards a window or the edge of the exhibit.
Patrolling	PT	The animal follows a repeated path around a portion or the entirety of the perimeter of the exhibit. The animal seems vigilant with repeated scans as movement happens.
Defecation	D	Marked by the presence of fecal matter on the floor. Feces drops from the hind of the orangutan. The orangutan may be hanging on climbing structures using any combination of limbs or may be sitting at the edge of the moat, platform, or on a bar with the hind facing where the feces would land. The orangutan may also reach around such that the feces would land on the palm and the orangutan would drop the collected feces on the floor. The orangutan may also gradually orient the upper body from an upright sitting position to a more acute prone posture.
Agitated Movement	AM	Locomotion that is fast, with fast scanning of surroundings, may or may not stop at a destination. Usually follows after a loud noise. Brachiation along the bars is hasty and may involve short air time. Scans towards the keeper’s kitchen or the entrance to the exhibit may be possible.