Figure 3.

Schematic diagram of the interactions among reactive oxygen species (ROS), Ca²⁺, and phytohormones (JA, jasmonic acid, SA, salicylic acid, and ethylene) within the cell upon biotic attack. Ca²⁺ influxes activate ethylene and calmodulins (CaMs) of JAV1, dismantling the JAV1–JAZ8–WRKY51 (JJW) complex to activate JA biosynthesis and thereby producing jasmonoyl-L-isoleucine (JA-Ile). High JA concentrations cause ROS accumulation, which in turn induces SA and vice versa. Distal transfer of Ca²⁺ (through glutamate receptor-like (GLR) channels), JA, and JA-Ile occurs between cells.