Table 1.
Adjusted odds ratios (aOR with 95% confidence interval, p-value) of health conditions by demographic, social, economic, biological, and health variables.
| Variable (Reference Category) | Cardiovascular Diseases | Diabetes Mellitus a | Depression b | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Men | Women | Men | Women | Men | Women | |
| 1. Blood Chromium Levels (Within range of 0.7–28.0 µg/L) | ||||||
| Below range (<0.7 µg/L) | 1.86 (1.22–2.85, 0.00) |
1.11 (0.71–1.73, 0.66) |
1.93 (1.32–2.83, 0.00) |
0.88 (0.63–1.22, 0.44) |
0.42 (0.22–0.77, 0.01) |
0.93 (0.65–1.33, 0.71) |
| 2. Socio-demographic Characteristics | ||||||
| Age (40–49 years) | ||||||
| 50–59 years | 1.09 (0.77–1.54, 0.62) |
0.66 (0.44–0.98, 0.04) |
0.48 (0.35–0.66, 0.00) |
0.47 (0.35–0.63, 0.00) |
1.72 (1.15–2.57, 0.01) |
2.44 (1.78–3.36, 0.00) |
| 60 years+ | 1.20 (0.88–1.64, 0.24) |
0.95 (0.67–1.34, 0.77) |
1.11 (0.83–1.48, 0.48) |
0.78 (0.60–1.01, 0.06) |
3.50 (2.49–4.90, 0.00) |
1.94 (1.47–2.56, 0.00) |
| Education (Less than high school graduate) | ||||||
| High school graduate and/or some post–secondary education | 0.90 (0.59–1.37, 0.63) |
2.20 (1.32–3.64, 0.00) |
1.55 (1.04–2.31, 0.03) |
0.92 (0.63–1.34, 0.66) |
1.74 (1.10–2.75, 0.02) |
1.93 (1.30–2.86, 0.00) |
| Post–secondary graduate or above | 1.62 (1.21–2.17, 0.00) |
1.75 (1.25–2.45, 0.00) |
1.18 (0.90–1.55, 0.22) |
0.64 (0.50–0.81, 0.00) |
1.15 (0.81–1.64, 0.43) |
1.40 (1.06–1.86, 0.02) |
| Marital Status (Widowed/divorced/separated) | ||||||
| Married/living with partner | 2.36 (1.38–4.03, 0.00) |
0.86 (0.50–1.50, 0.60) |
3.22 (1.87–5.53, 0.00) |
1.35 (0.87–2.10, 0.18) |
2.86 (1.60–5.14, 0.00) |
0.80 (0.52–1.23, 0.31) |
| Never married | 1.30 (0.80–2.10, 0.29) |
0.69 (0.41–1.18, 0.18) |
3.50 (2.11–5.79, 0.00) |
1.32 (0.86–2.02, 0.21) |
1.58 (0.91–2.77, 0.11) |
0.75 (0.49–1.14, 0.18) |
| Family Income ($75,000+ USD) | ||||||
| $65,000–74,999 USD | 0.32 (0.15–0.69, 0.00) |
1.52 (0.66–3.54, 0.33) |
0.69 (0.35–1.38, 0.29) |
0.64 (0.33–1.25, 0.19) |
0.86 (0.32–2.28, 0.76) |
0.83 (0.40–1.71, 0.62) |
| $55,000–64,999 USD | 0.16 (0.06–0.39, 0.00) |
1.23 (0.45–3.35, 0.69) |
0.63 (0.28–1.39, 0.25) |
0.53 (0.24–1.15, 0.11) |
1.12 (0.38–3.32, 0.84) |
0.65 (0.27–1.57, 0.34) |
| $45,000–54,999 USD | 0.32 (0.13–0.74, 0.01) |
1.87 (0.73–4.78, 0.19) |
0.69 (0.32–1.47, 0.33) |
0.71 (0.33–1.49, 0.36) |
1.53 (0.55–4.29, 0.41) |
1.79 (0.81–3.92, 0.15) |
| $35,000–44,999 USD | 0.63 (0.26–1.49, 0.29) |
2.57 (1.03–6.41, 0.04) |
1.89 (0.88–4.06, 0.10) |
0.80 (0.39–1.64, 0.54) |
1.97 (0.70–5.56, 0.20) |
1.08 (0.50–2.35, 0.84) |
| $25,000–34,999 USD | 0.31 (0.13–0.73, 0.01) |
2.62 (1.04–6.62, 0.04) |
1.37 (0.62–3.00, 0.43) |
0.55 (0.26–1.13, 0.10) |
1.10 (0.38–3.20, 0.86) |
1.04 (0.47–2.29, 0.92) |
| Less than $25,000 USD | 0.30 (0.13–0.72, 0.01) |
1.83 (0.78–4.30, 0.17) |
1.07 (0.50–2.31, 0.86) |
0.96 (0.49–1.90, 0.91) |
2.73 (0.99–7.51, 0.05) |
1.47 (0.71–3.06, 0.30) |
| Not reported | 0.50 (0.22–1.13, 0.10) |
4.07 (1.75–9.44, 0.00) |
1.33 (0.64–2.75, 0.44) |
1.15 (0.59–2.25, 0.68) |
1.95 (0.73–5.23, 0.18) |
1.86 (0.92–3.78, 0.09) |
| 3. Biological Measurements | ||||||
| Red Blood Cell Folate c (Below/within range: <317 or 317–1422 nmol/L) | ||||||
| Above range (>1422 nmol/L) | 0.80 (0.62–1.05, 0.11) |
0.84 (0.63–1.12, 0.23) |
1.55 (1.20–2.00, 0.00) |
1.33 (1.07–1.66, 0.01) |
1.51 (1.10–2.06, 0.01) |
0.94 (0.75–1.19, 0.63) |
| 4. Health Measures | ||||||
| Multi–morbidity d (No health conditions) | ||||||
| One health condition | 0.68 (0.50–0.93, 0.02) |
0.80 (0.55–1.14, 0.22) |
0.93 (0.69–1.26, 0.66) |
0.78 (0.58–1.05, 0.10) |
0.38 (0.26–0.56, 0.00) |
0.35 (0.25–0.50, 0.00) |
| Two or more health conditions | 0.84 (0.60–1.16, 0.29) |
0.77 (0.55–1.08, 0.13) |
1.36 (1.02–1.83, 0.04) |
0.80 (0.62–1.04, 0.09) |
0.61 (0.43–0.87, 0.01) |
0.55 (0.41–0.73, 0.00) |
| Diabetes a (No diabetes or prediabetes; glycohemoglobin <5.7%) | ||||||
| Have diabetes or prediabetes | 0.79 (0.61–1.01, 0.06) |
0.77 (0.58–1.03, 0.08) |
– | – | 0.81 (0.61–1.07, 0.14) |
0.54 (0.43–0.69, 0.00) |
| Depression b (No depression) | ||||||
| Yes/depressed | 1.32 (0.95–1.83, 0.10) |
0.74 (0.54–1.01, 0.06) |
0.69 (0.51–0.93, 0.01) |
0.62 (0.49–0.79, 0.00) |
– | – |
| Body Mass Index (BMI) e (Within healthy weight range) | ||||||
| Overweight | 0.44 (0.31–0.62, 0.00) |
0.43 (0.30–0.61, 0.00) |
0.47 (0.34–0.64, 0.00) |
0.28 (0.22–0.37, 0.00) |
1.00 (0.67–1.50, 0.98) |
0.85 (0.64–1.14, 0.29) |
| Obese | 0.63 (0.49–0.83, 0.00) |
0.56 (0.40–0.78, 0.00) |
0.55 (0.42–0.70, 0.00) |
0.46 (0.36–0.59, 0.00) |
1.32 (0.97–1.80, 0.08) |
1.01 (0.78–1.32, 0.94) |
| Cardiovascular Diseases-related Medication (None) | ||||||
| Take one or more cardiovascular diseases-related medication(s) | 0.07 (0.05–0.09, 0.00) |
0.03 (0.02–0.04, 0.00) |
– | – | – | – |
| Mental Health-related Medication f (None or not reported) | ||||||
| Take one or more mental health-related medication(s) | – | – | – | – | 0.23 (0.17–0.31, 0.00) |
0.31 (0.25–0.39, 0.00) |
| Diabetes Mellitus-related Medication (None) | ||||||
| Take one or more diabetes mellitus-related medication(s) | – | – | 0.02 (0.01–0.04, 0.00) |
0.08 (0.05–0.14, 0.00) |
– | – |
| 5. Health Behavior Variables | ||||||
| Drinking Behavior g (Moderate drinking) | ||||||
| Not moderate drinking | 0.83 (0.61–1.14, 0.25) |
1.45 (1.02–2.06, 0.04) |
1.10 (0.83–1.47, 0.51) |
0.85 (0.66–1.11, 0.23) |
0.87 (0.62–1.24, 0.45) |
1.04 (0.78–1.38, 0.78) |
| Not reported | 0.75 (0.53–1.06, 0.10) |
1.32 (0.91–1.91, 0.15) |
0.64 (0.47–0.89, 0.01) |
0.51 (0.39–0.67, 0.00) |
0.97 (0.67–1.41, 0.88) |
1.39 (1.04–1.87, 0.03) |
| Smoking (<100 cigarettes in lifetime) | ||||||
| ≥100 cigarettes in lifetime | 0.76 (0.59–0.97, 0.03) |
1.02 (0.76–1.36, 0.92) |
0.70 (0.55–0.89, 0.00) |
1.22 (0.98–1.52, 0.08) |
0.75 (0.56–1.01, 0.06) |
0.87 (0.69–1.10, 0.24) |
a Diabetes and prediabetes: ≥5.7% glycohemoglobin [56]; b Depression: total Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) score ≥ 5 [59,60]; c Clinical reference ranges of 317–1422 nmol/L [67]; d Includes cardiovascular diseases (congestive heart failure, coronary heart disease, angina/angina pectoris, heart attack, stroke, high blood pressure), respiratory diseases (emphysema, chronic bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma), kidney diseases (weak/failing kidneys, kidney stones), thyroid disease, liver diseases, bone diseases (arthritis, gout), cancer. Note: cardiovascular diseases are excluded in the multi-morbidity variable when the dependent variable is cardiovascular diseases; e BMI: body mass index. Within healthy weight range: 18.5–24.9 kg/m2; overweight: 25–30 kg/m2; obese: ≥30 kg/m2 [68]; f Includes anti-depressant, psychiatric medication(s), or medication(s) for depression, feeling worried, or anxious; g Moderate drinking: ≤1 alcoholic drinks/day for women and ≤2 alcoholic drinks/day for men. Not moderate drinking: >1 alcoholic drinks/day for women and >2 alcoholic drinks/day for men [69]. 75,000+ USD means 75,000 and over 75,000 USD. 60 years+ means 60 and over 60 years old. $ means American currency.