Table 1.

Posttranslational thiol modifications of proteins involved in inflammation and infection.

Protein	Function	Modification	Regulation	Reference
Alpha 1 antitrypsin	Glycoprotein; mainly produced by hepatocytes	S-Nitrosylation: Increases bacteriostatic function and activation of immune cells	Unknown	(14)
Beta-1 defensin	Interaction with microbial targets; antimicrobial peptide	Reduced: Increases antimicrobial and chemotactic activity Disulfide: Facilitates stability of a compact, highly ordered fold	Catalysis by Trx1	(15, 16)
Cathepsin B	Protease; involved in various physiological processes	S-Glutathionylation leads to stability without affecting enzyme activity	Unknown	(17–19)
Cluster of differentiation 4	Transmembrane glycoprotein; acts as a coligand and coreceptor of MHC II molecule	Reduced: Improves affinity toward the T-cell receptor; HIV-1 entry Disulfide: Reduces the affinity for cell entry (HIV-1)	Catalysis by Trx1	(20, 21)
Cyclooxygenase-2	Key enzyme required for the conversion of arachidonic acid into prostaglandins	S-Nitrosylation: Activates eicosanoid production	Catalysis by Grx1	(22, 23)
Diphtheria toxin	Toxin synthesized by Corynebacterium diphtheriae	Reduced disulfides generate two fragments; induce translocation Disulfide: Activates ADP-ribosyltransferase activity and eventually inhibits protein biosynthesis	Catalysis by Trx1	(24–26)
Glycoprotein 120	Interaction with viral coreceptors present on the lymphocyte surface	Disulfide: Reduces the affinity for viral attachment to the host lymphocyte cell surface and invasion	Trx1: Indirectly regulates Gp120 binding to CD4	(27, 28)
High-mobility group box 1	Nuclear DNA-binding protein; functions as a pro-inflammatory cytokine	Disulfide bridges and S-Glutathionylation essential for binding of TLRs and RAGEs	Oxidation by Prx1/Prx2 Interaction with Grx1	(29, 30) (29)
Heat shock protein 60	Chaperone	S-Nitrosylation: Regulates mitochondrial DNA stability and protein binding	Catalysis by Trx1	(31, 32)
IgG	Immunoglobin; antibody; recognition and binding of antigens	Reduced: Increases the antigen affinity Disulfide bridges lead to the stability of the antibody and isoform formation	Catalysis by Trx1	(33, 34)
Integrin	Regulation of cellular growth, proliferation, migration, signaling, and cytokine activation and release	S-Glutathionylation of α4 enhances affinity for neutrophil Vascular cell adhesion protein (VCAM) and mobilization of cells out of the bone marrow Disulfide of α7β1 affects integrin-mediated cell adhesion	Catalysis by Grx1 Catalysis by Trx1	(35) (36)
Interleukin-1β	Cytokine	S-Glutathionylation: Regulates activity	Catalysis by Grx1	(37)
Signal transducer and activator of transcription 1	Transcription factor; regulation of inflammatory responses and cellular death	S-Glutathionylation: Increases activity and induces CXC9 in macrophages	Unknown	(38, 39)