Table 1.
Overview of sonobactericide papers
| Pathogen Type | Pathogen | Culture type | in vitro | In vivo | Model set-up | Antimicrobial | Cavitation nuclei | US frequency (MHz) | Pressure/Intensity or calculated pressure | Cycles/PRF/Treatment time | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gram+ | E. faecalis | biofilm | x | - | root canals of single-rooted polymer and human teeth | 5.25% NaOCl | custom-made | 0.032 ± 0.004 | N.D. | N.D., 1 min | (Halford, et al. 2012) |
| intracellular | x | - | Infected human bladder cell organoid model | gentamicin | custom-made | 1.1 | 2.5MPa | 25% duty cycle, PRF 50 Hz, 20 s | (Horsley, et al. 2019) | ||
| P. acnes | planktonic; in vivo: N.D. | x | x | eppendorf tube; intradermally into mouse ears | lysozyme | custom-made | 1 | in vitro: 1, 2, 3 W/cm2 in vivo: 3 W/cm2 | 50% duty cycle, in vitro: 1 min; in vivo: 1 min, q.d. for 13 d | (Liao, et al. 2017) | |
| S. aureus | planktonic | x | x | tissue culture plate; bone cement in rabbit tibiae | vancomycin | SonoVue | 1 | 0.3 W/cm2 | 30% duty cycle, 24 h | (Lin, et al. 2015) | |
| biofilm | x | - | tissue culture plate/coverslip | vancomycin | custom-made | 1 | 0.3 W/cm2 | 50% duty cycle, 5 min | (Guo, et al. 2017) | ||
| biofilm | x | - | infected clot on a suture in glass capillaries | oxacillin | Definity | 0.12 | 0.44 MPa (PTP) | continuous wave, 50 s on 30 s off, 30 min | (Lattwein, et al. 2018) | ||
| biofilm | x | - | Subcutaneously implanted titanium plate in mice | human β-defensin 3 | custom-made /SonoVue | 0.08 | 0.2 W/cm2 | 50% duty cycle, 20 min, t.i.d. for 7, 14, 28 d | (Zhou, et al. 2018) | ||
| S. epidermidis | biofilm | x | x | tissue culture plate; subcutaneously implanted disk in rabbits | vancomycin | SonoVue | 0.08 | in vitro: 1 W/cm2 in vivo: 0.5 W/cm2 | 50% duty cycle, in vitro: 10 min; in vivo: 20 min, t.i.d. for 72 h | (He, et al. 2011) | |
| biofilm | x | - | OptiCell | vancomycin | custom-made | 0.3 | 0.5 W/cm2 or 0.12 MPa* | 50% duty cycle, 5 min | (Dong, et al. 2013) | ||
| biofilm | x | - | OptiCell | vancomycin | custom-made | 1 | 0.5 W/cm2 or 0.12 MPa* | 50% duty cycle, 5 min | (Dong, et al. 2017) | ||
| biofilm | - | x | Subcutaneously implanted catheter in rabbits | vancomycin | custom-made | 0.3 | 0.5 W/cm2 or 0.12 MPa* | 50% duty cycle, 5 min, b.i.d. for 48 h | (Dong, et al. 2018) | ||
| biofilm | x | - | tissue culture plate; glass FluoroDish | vancomycin | SonoVue | 1 | 1 W/cm2 or 0.24 MPa* | 50% duty cycle, 10 min | (Hu, et al. 2018) | ||
| S. aureus & S. epidermidis | biofilm | x | - | tissue culture plate with titanium plate | human β-defensin 3 | SonoVue | 1 | 1 W/cm2 | 50% duty cycle, 10 min | ||
| biofilm | - | x | subcutaneously implanted titanium plate in mice | human β-defensin 3 | SonoVue | 0.08 | 0.2 W/cm2 | 50% duty cycle, 20 min, t.i.d. for 48 h | (Li, et al. 2015) | ||
| S. mutans | biofilm | x | - | tissue culture plate with disk | none | Sonazoid | 0.28 | N.D. | 0–90% duty cycle, 1 min | (Nishikawa, et al. 2010) | |
| Gram− | A. baumannii | biofilm | x | - | tissue culture plate/coverslip | polymyxin B | custom-made | 1 | 3 W/cm2 | continuous wave, 5 min | (Fu, et al. 2019) |
| C. trachohmatis | intracellular | x | - | infected HeLa cells in tissue plate with gas permeable bottom | doxycycline; ceftizoxime | custom-made | 1.011 | 0.15, 0.44 W/cm2 or 0.13, 0.23 MPa# | 25% duty cycle, 20 sec | (Ikeda-Dantsuji, et al. 2011) | |
| E. coli | planktonic | x | - | centrifuge tubes | none | Albunex; ST68 custom-made | 1 | 500 W/cm2 | 1 ms pulse, PRF 20 Hz, 5 min | (Vollmer, et al. 1998) | |
| planktonic | x | - | tubes | gentamicin | SonoVue | 0.0465 | 0.01 W/cm2 | 33% duty cycle, 12 h | (Zhu, et al. 2014) | ||
| N.D. | - | x | direct injection into rat prostates | none | custom-made | 1 | 0.5 MPa/0.023 W/cm2 | 1% duty cycle, 5 min | (Yi, et al. 2016) | ||
| N.D. | - | x | Intratracheally infected mice | gentamicin | Definity | 1.3 | 0.9 – 1.2 MPa (PNP) | pulse every 5 s, 5 min | (Sugiyama, et al. 2018) | ||
| F. nucleatum | planktonic | x | - | tissue culture plate | none | Optison | 0.96 | 0.5 MPa (PPP) | 50% duty cycle, PRF 1 Hz, 90 s | (Han, et al. 2005) | |
| planktonic | x | - | tissue culture plate | none | Definity | 1 | 0.25, 0.5, >0.9 MPa (PPP) | 0 −50% duty cycle, PRF 1–100 Hz, 10, 90, 450 s | (Han, et al. 2005) | ||
| P. aeruginosa | biofilm | x | - | glass coverslip in flow cell | gentamicin; streptomycin | Definity | 0.5 | 1.1 MPa (PNP) | 16 cycle tone burst, PRF 1 kHz, 5 min | (Ronan, et al. 2016) | |
| P. putida | biofilm | x | - | glass coverslip in acetate film chamber | none | SonoVue | 0.25, 1 | 0.1, 0.5, 0.7 MPa (PNP) | 50 μs pulse | (Goh, et al. 2015) | |
| E. coli & P. pastoris - (yeast) | planktonic | x | - | microfluidic system | none | custom-made | 0.13 | 10 bar (~1 MPa) | 500–50,000 cycles, ms – s, every 5 s | (Tandiono, et al. 2012) | |
| Mixed | N.D. | biofilm | x | - | nylon membrane surface | none | custom-made | 0.042 | N.D. | 2 sec pulse, every 2 min, 15 min | (Agarwal, et al. 2014) |
US = ultrasound; PRF = pulse repetition frequency; N.D. = not defined; PTP = peak-to-peak pressure; PPP = peak positive pressure; PNP = peak negative pressure; q.d. = once a day; b.i.d. = twice a day; t.i.d. = thrice a day
*
= calculated peak pressure from spatial pulse-average intensity (ISPTA) values obtained by personal communication with author(s)
#
= calculated peak pressure from spatial-average temporal-average intensity (ISATA) values obtained by personal communication with author(s).
Calculations were performed using the formulae (Kinsler, et al. 2000): ISATA = P2/2ρc, where P denotes the peak pressure, and ρ and c denote the density and speed of sound, and ISPTA = ISATA/Duty factor