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. 2022 Mar 16;5(3):481–496. doi: 10.1007/s42242-021-00177-w

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 7 — Bone regeneration: a Undecalcified histology of the multi-layer scaffold and collagen–HAp scaffold groups show bone formation surrounding the Ti matrix and tissue ingrowth into the PLA section, while fibrous tissue formation is observed in the collagen–HAp scaffold group. b The micro-CT sections of samples in both groups clearly show the presence of voids in the collagen–HAp scaffold group. c The histomorphometry analysis from histology showed significantly higher (p = 0.01) bone volume/total volume (bone ingrowth) in the multi-layer scaffold group. The BV/TV of native bone taken from the literature [39]. d Evaluation of bone formation. The X-ray micrographs of mid-sections of both groups and the X-ray of the joint immediately after the operation and at 12 weeks showing multi-layer scaffold and collagen–HAp scaffold samples. The red asterisk shows the lack of bone formation in the collagen–HAp scaffold group, with only patches of new bone (green arrow). The green arrowhead shows bone ingrowth into the Ti matrix. The red arrowhead indicates the position of the scaffold and its fixation within the joint. The area shown by the red arrow depicts the position of the collagen–HAp scaffold (note the reduced opacity)