TABLE 2.
Summary of multiscale nanofiber-based tendon regeneration scaffolds.
| References | Application | Animal Model | Scaffold | Material | Cell | Bioactive molecule | Morphology | Mechanical properties | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fiber diameter | Porosity (%) | Young’s modulus (MPa) | Ultimate stress (MPa) | Yield stress (MPa) | Ultimate stress (%) | Stiffness (N/mm) | Maximum force (N) | ||||||||
| Jayasree et al. (2019) | Achilles tendon | In vivo rabbit | Braided multiscale nanofibrous scaffold | PCL/Col/alginate | rTenocytes | bFGF | 300–400 nm (collagen nanofibers) 8–10 μm (Multiscale fibers composed of aligned PCL microfibers) | — | As-fabricated | — | — | 89.4 ± 5.3 (braided scaffold) | — | — | 46.75 ± 3.2 (braided scaffold) |
| Zhao et al. (2019) | Achilles tendon | In vivo rat | Knitted scaffolds | PLGA | rBMSCs | bFGF | 15 μm (PLGA yarns) | 91% | transplant after 2 weeks transplant after 8 weeks | 33.76 ± 5.75 (PLGA/MSCs/bFGF) 22.46 ± 4.27 (PLGA) 16.90 ± 1.66 (control) 56.31 ± 9.64 (intact tendon) 45.73 ± 11.64 (intact tendons) 43.65 ± 5.09 (PLGA/MSCs/bFGF) 25.61 ± 5.30 (control) | — | — | — | ∼70 (intact tendon) ∼25 (PLGA/MSCs/bFGF) ∼18 (control) ∼70 (intact tendon) ∼50 (PLGA/MSCs/bFGF) ∼35 (control) | 132 ± 12.5 (PLGA/MSCs/bFGF) 71 ± 8.56 (PLGA/bFGF) 70.30 ± 6.65 (PLGA/MSCs) 68.00 ± 2.64 (PLGA) 64.00 ± 4.0 (control) 154.33 ± 10.3 (intact tendons) 105.57 ± 5.81 (PLGA/MSCs/bFGF) 71.27 ± 10.8 (control) |
| Cai et al. (2018a) | Achilles tendon | In vivo rabbit | Braided scaffolds | PET | rBMSCs | — | ∼8 μm (PET yarns) | — | Scaffolds of seeded cell after 14 days then transplant after 6 weeks after 12 weeks | — | — | — | 15.5 ± 0.9 (BMSC-PET) 15.2 ± 0.8 (PET) 30.0 ± 2.4 (BMSC-PET) 22.8 ± 2.8 (PET) | 73.8 ± 5.4 (BMSC-PET) 68.6 ± 5.4 (PET) 124.5 ± 5.5 (BMSC-PET) 107.8 ± 5.3 (PET) | |
| Morais et al. (2020) | Achilles tendon | In vitro | Braided scaffolds | PP/PET | — | — | — | — | As-fabricated | — | — | — | 28.6 ± 2.2 (PP8YH) 33.9 ± 2.2 (PP16YH) 58.4 ± 3.3 (PPC16B8YH_S16YL) 80.3 ± 1.8 (PPC16B16YHS16YL) 16.5 ± 0.8 (PET16YHbraid) 53.9 ± 2.2 (C22B16YH_S16YL) | 73.0 ± 1.1 (PPC16B8YH_S16YL) 108.6 ± 6.0 (PPC16B16YHS16YL) 25.1 ± 1.4 (PET16YHbraid) 208.0 ± 12.5 (C22B16YH_S16YL) | 591.0 ± 12.1 (PP8YH) 1087.6 ± 32.4 (PP16YH) 8356.1 ± 279.7 (PPC16B8YH_S16YL) 16626.0 ± 217.0 (PPC16B16YH_S16YL) 1165.5 ± 63.4 (PET16YHbraid) 18359.7 ± 522.4 (C22B16YH_S16YL) |
| Yin et al. (2022) | Achilles tendon | In vivo rat | Multiscale | PLLA | mTSPCs | — | 725 ± 127 nm (nanofibers) 2.098 ± 0.623 μm (microfibers) | — | As-fabricated | 573.06 ± 38.57 (micro-nanofibers) 479.58 ± 49.16 (microfibers) 735.93 ± 97.99 (nanofibers) | 20.06 ± 1.15 (micro-nanofibers) 12.91 ± 3.10 (microfibers) ∼30 (nanofibers) | — | ∼125 (micro-nanofibers) ∼75 (microfibers) ∼150 (nanofibers) | — | — |
| Olkhov et al. (2018) | Achilles tendon | In vivo rat | Monofilaments surrounded by nanofiber | PHB/polyamide | Fibroblast | — | 100–900 nm | — | As-fabricated | — | — | — | — | — | 8–12 (nature) ∼16 (scaffolds) |
| Rashid et al. (2020) | Tendon | In vivo sheep | Aligned electrospun fibers reinforced by a woven monofilament mesh | PDO and PCL | — | — | electrospun layer: 802–1323 nm woven PDO layer: 114–134 μm | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Chen et al. (2021d) | Tendon | In vivo rabbit | Nanoyarn scaffold | P (LLA-CL)/silk fibroin | rASCs | GDF-5 | ∼4 μm (Nanoyarn scaffold) ∼1 μm (nanofibers) | — | As-fabricated scaffolds of seeded cell after 3 day then transplant after 4 weeks transplant after 12 weeks | 26.35 ± 8.21 (nanoyarn scaffold) | — | 12.38 ± 1.35 (nanoyarn scaffold) | 91.93 ± 4.35 (nanoyarn scaffold) | — | 28.92 ± 13.30 (nanoyarn scaffold with ASCs) 10.09 ± 11.19 (nanoyarn scaffold w/0 ASCs) 45.04 ± 6.54 (nanoyarn scaffold with ASCs) 25.53 ± 12.76(nanoyarn scaffold w/0 ASCs) |
| Cai et al. (2020) | Tendon | In vivo rabbit | Microfiber/nanofiber yarn and knitted scaffolds | PCL/SF/PLCL | rBMSCs | — | — | — | As-fabricated scaffolds of seeded cell after 14 days then transplant after 6 moths | — | — | 91.09 ± 2.50 (PCL-SF/PLCL) 67.99 ± 2.19 PCL-PCL) | — | ∼110 (native tendon) ∼70 (PCL-SF/PLCL) | 80.02 ± 3.48 (PCL-PCL) 77.39 ± 2.06 (PCL-SF/PLCL) 48.84 ± 2.90 (PCL) ∼200 (native tendon) ∼125 (PCL-SF/PLCL) |
| Shaohua Wu et al. (2020) | Tendon | In vitro | Nanofiber/microfiber hybrid yarns | PLGA/PLA | hADMSC | Tβ4 | 663.5 ± 200.8 nm (PLGA) 15 μm (PLAMicrofiber) 163.5 ± 14.6 μm (PLA MY) 172.8 ± 6.4 (PLGA/PLA HY) | — | As-fabricated | ∼1300 (HY) ∼1250 (MY) | ∼115 (HY) ∼100 (MY) | — | ∼37 (HY) ∼38 (MY) | — | 277.7 ± 9.0 cN (HY) 253.6 ± 10.7 cN (MY) |
| Shaohua Wu et al. (2017) | Tendon | In vitro | random and aligned nanofiber-yarn woven biotextiles | PCL/PLA | hADMSC/human tenocytes /hUVECs | — | 452.3 ± 218.4 nm (aligned PCL) 484.8 ± 345.7 nm (random PCL) 460.2 ± 213.0 nm (PCL in weave) 208.5 ± 13.7 um (PCL yarn) 15 um (PLA yarn) | — | As-fabricated | ∼60 (woven fabrics) ∼12 (aligned PCL) ∼4 (random PCL) | ∼10 (woven fabrics) ∼5 (aligned PCL) ∼2 (random PCL) | — | ∼45 (woven fabrics) ∼40 (aligned PCL) ∼240 (random PCL) | — | — |
| Li et al. (2019b) | Tendon | In vitro | Helical nanofiber yarn scaffold | PLGA/PU/PVDF-HFP/cellulose | MSCs/rMEF | — | — | — | As-fabricated | — | — | 88.7 (hierarchical helix scaffold) 88.6 (primary yarn) | 1,420 (hierarchical helix scaffold) 174% (primary yarn) | — | — |
| Sankar et al. (2021) | Tendon | In vitro | Electrospinning multiscale fibers | PCL/collagen | hMSCs | Plasma | 193 ± 72 nm (collagennanofibers) 5.5 ± 1.5 μm (Aligned PCL microfibers) 8.8 ± 0.6 μm (Random PCL microfibers) | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Xing Li et al. (2020) | Tendon | In vitro | Yarns nanofibers hierarchical scaffolds | PCL/CHT/CNCs/TROPO/PDA | hASCs | — | 149 ± 16 μm (yarns) 134 ± 28 nm (uncoated) 144 ± 32 nm (PDA-coated) 153 ± 33 nm (TROPO/PDA-coated) | — | As-fabricated scaffolds of seeded cell after 21 days | 9.0 ± 4.8 (uncoated) 4.7 ± 3.0 (PDA-coated) 5.6 ± 3.6 (TROPO/PDA-coated) 19.4 ± 12.5 kPa (uncoated) 11.5 ± 6.9 kPa (PDA-coated) 9.8 ± 5.9 kPa (TROPO/PDA-coated) | — | — | — | — | — |
| Araque-Monrós et al. (2020) | Tendon and ligament | In vitro | Braid scaffolds | PLA/HA/PLLA | Mouse fibroblasts | — | 33 ± 5 μm (coating layer in dry) 270 μm (coating layer in swollen) 110 ± 80 μm (PLLA microspheres) 20 ± 14 μm (HA microspheres) | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Chen et al. (2012) | Ligament | In vitro | Knitted Microfiber coated with a nanofibrous mesh | Silk/RADA | rBMSCs | — | 10–20 nm (RADA nanofibers) | — | Scaffolds of seeded cell after 21 days | — | — | — | — | — | 37.9 ± 9.2 (BMSC-seeded scaffold IV) 35.5 ± 2.5 (BMSC-seeded scaffold II) 31.3 ± 4.2 (unseeded scaffold IV) |
| Ma et al. (2022) | Transition/tendon | In vitro | Aligned nanowires in alginate hydrogel | CS/alginate | rBMSCs/rTPSCs | — | ∼30 nm (CS nanowires) | — | As-fabricated | ∼120 (Alg) ∼310 (20CS-S) | ∼5 (Alg) ∼17 (20CS-S) | — | — | ||