Table 2.

Examples of infodemic management systems in Ghana.

Talkwalker	Risk assessment	Action	Expected outcome
The attitude of nursing staff in xx health unit is not appropriate. People are not willing to get their COVID-19 vaccines at that location.	Medium risk: potential to increase COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy as people are unwilling to get the vaccine in the health unit. It also impacts the uptake of any services at that particular health unit.	Training of the health care unit staff members in customer service.	Improved health systems through more service-oriented staff.
Misinformation was spread by a national football coach who claimed having lost a game because all players were vaccinated and it made them weak.	High risk: football is a popular sport in Ghana and the coach is seen as a local celebrity. Accordingly, the misinformation can spread rapidly among football fans.	Personal contact with the football coach to understand his claims, provide information about the COVID-19 vaccine, and encourage him to publicly advocate for the vaccine.	Gaining the football club as a vaccine supporter that can disseminate positive COVID-19 vaccine messages as needed.
Disinformation by an alleged doctor that all who have taken the COVID-19 vaccine will die in 2 years.	High risk: potential to increase vaccine hesitancy and contribute to refusal to take the vaccine because it was from an alleged doctor and relates to the severe adverse effect of the vaccine. The disinformation was also circulating widely and rapidly.	Fact-check and, once verified fake, circulate the news with a fake news stamp. Simultaneously run factual information about the COVID-19 vaccine across different social media platforms.	Stopped circulation of the fake news.
Rumors that GHS is faking COVID-19 death statistics as the numbers on the website do not correspond with numbers available on social media.	High risk: potential to decrease trust toward the COVID-19 vaccination program and Ghana health services.	Issue a press release and explain that sometimes there is a lag in GHS numbers owing to the verification process to ensure that the numbers are correct and highlight how important it is for GHD to verify any information before publishing it on the website.	Improved trust towards GHS reporting procedures.