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. 2022 May 19;65(8):1398–1411. doi: 10.1007/s00125-022-05711-8

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 6 — More gut bacteria in obese individuals with type 2 diabetes are IgM-coated and the bacteria differ between individuals with type 2 diabetes vs NGT or IGT. (a) The proportion of IgM-, IgA- and IgG-bound gut microbiota from obese individuals with NGT (n = 15), IGT (n = 6) or type 2 diabetes (n = 5) was measured by flow cytometry. (b–d) IgM-bound and unbound bacterial sequencing results: α diversity, as assessed by Chao average (to determine species richness) (b); β diversity, as assessed by PCoA (c); and relative abundance of bacterial species, as determined by 16S rRNA sequencing analysis (d). All faecal samples were collected from treatment-naive individuals. Orange triangles, red triangles, purple circles represent IgM⁻ bacteria from obese donors with NGT, IGT and type 2 diabetes, respectively; green triangles, blue triangles and yellow squares represent IgM⁺ bacteria from obese donors with NGT, IGT and type 2 diabetes, respectively. Data were assessed for significance using Student’s t test (a, b), Analysis of similarities (ANOSIM) (c) and multiple t tests (d). Data are presented as mean ± SD. *p<0.05, **p<0.01. T2D, type 2 diabetes