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. 2022 Jul 14;12:281. doi: 10.1038/s41398-022-02028-3

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 3 — The impact of CRD on brain disorders is pervasive and dynamic. Starting from the fetal stage through early life, the effects of maternal CRD (e.g., resultant from asynchronous light exposure) on development can impact genetic and neural activity with respect to individual genetic liability. During this period, estrogen is proposed to act as a buffer against neuropathological mechanisms. However, hormonal changes throughout life will eventually curb these protective effects. Moreover, behavioral factors play an increasingly significant role in directing the repercussions of CRD with age. The consequences of the interplay between circadian-sensitive genetic (red bar), neural (green bar), and behavioral (blue bar) factors through late age are profound and complex, as dynamic interactions over time result in bidirectional relationships among all circadian-sensitive factors. The labeled factors in each bar have been consistently associated with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs), adolescence and midlife psychiatric disorders, and aging-related neurodegenerative disorders. The ones highlighted in the figure do not represent a complete list.