Table 2.

Biochemical factors in biomimetic periosteum fabrication.

Classification	Biochemical elements	Pros	Cons	Ref.
Cells	Osteoblasts	Promote new bone formation; Accelerate bone mineralization	Insufficient sources, long expansion cycle	[58]
	MSCs	Self-renewal ability; Osteogenesis capacity	Limited vascularization;	[[74], [75], [76]]
	Human dermal fibroblasts	Mimic ECM structure	Limited vascularization;	[60]
	HUVECs	Angiogenesis capacity	Limited osteoinduction;	[77]
Growth factors	TGF	Promote collagen production; Anti-inflammation	High cost; short half-life Possible oncogenesis	[69]
	PDGF	Promote the proliferation of osteoprogenitor cells		[78]
	VEGF	Promote angiogenesis		[74,79,80]
	FGF	Promote tissue repair and periosteal chondrogenesis		[[81], [82], [83]]
	IGF	Promote fracture healing; Increase the bone mineral density		[84,85]
	BMP	Induce MSC osteogenic differentiation; Promote fracture healing;		[67,86]
Small biomolecules	Dexamethasone	Promote cell proliferation and bone formation	Difficult to control the dose	[87,88]
	Glycerophosphate	Induce mineralized bone formation	Short drug effect	[89]
	RGD	Enhance cell adhesion to non-adhesive surfaces	High cost	[90]
	Icariin	Enhance the proliferation of periosteal cells	Abnormal coagulation	[11,91]