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. 2022 Jul 18;22:351. doi: 10.1186/s12870-022-03723-5

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 2 — Functionally characterized miRNAs associated with the immune response against bacterial, fungal, and viral pathogens, as well as insect herbivores. Pathogen-derived effector molecules elicit the expression of MIR genes by RNA polymerase II via mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase signaling. The long hairpin transcript is processed by Dicer-like protein (DCL). The miR162 targets the DCL and produces ROS. Various miRNAs such as miR162, miR164, miR169, miR398, and miR439 also participate in the immune response mechanism via ROS. On the other hand, a tug of war between AGO1 and AGO18 for binding to miR528 and miR168 facilitates the expression of strong resistance against the invading viral pathogen through the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The miR156, miR396, and miR159 confer resistance to pathogens and insect pests by targeting transcription factors through a mechanism modulated by phytohormones