Table 3.
Effects of COVID on infant health outcomes – Heterogeneity.
| (1) |
(2) |
(3) |
(4) |
(5) |
(6) |
(7) |
(8) |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Marital status |
Age (years) |
Education (years) |
Prenatal visits |
|||||
| Married | Not married | |||||||
| Panel A: birth weight (EM) | ||||||||
| COVID | −9.995 (26.071) |
7.192 (26.500) |
6.949 (30.843) |
232.925 (188.617) |
49.730 (86.370) |
10.532 (20.926) |
29.430 (23.231) |
−31.776 (25.412) |
| Indigenous | −77.717∗∗∗ (14.173) |
−35.655∗∗∗ (12.595) |
−41.751∗∗ (17.734) |
0.685 (75.184) |
−78.818∗∗∗ (29.199) |
−61.058∗∗∗ (11.441) |
−59.460∗∗∗ (10.702) |
−59.549∗∗∗ (15.333) |
| Indigenous × COVID | 16.955 (30.464) |
−31.497 (21.917) |
−30.348 (35.904) |
−154.377 (159.015) |
−61.510 (55.586) |
−14.140 (26.278) |
−29.800 (24.226) |
13.688 (24.214) |
| N | 24,369 | 31,362 | 12,596 | 747 | 3605 | 39,980 | 27,712 | 28,019 |
| R-squared | 0.101 | 0.105 | 0.110 | 0.138 | 0.115 | 0.109 | 0.090 | 0.089 |
| Panel B: birth weight (IM) | ||||||||
| COVID | 0.600 (0.608) |
−0.221 (0.448) |
0.577 (0.640) |
0.346 (3.225) |
−1.332 (1.864) |
0.280 (0.445) |
0.553 (0.588) |
−0.199 (0.474) |
| Indigenous | −75.851∗∗∗ (14.117) |
−39.000∗∗∗ (12.647) |
−41.600∗∗ (17.809) |
−5.635 (68.710) |
−82.898∗∗∗ (29.299) |
−60.920∗∗∗ (11.020) |
−61.615∗∗∗ (10.242) |
−59.721∗∗∗ (15.421) |
| Indigenous × COVID | 0.034 (0.472) |
−0.218 (0.327) |
−0.579 (0.589) |
−1.540 (2.425) |
−0.492 (0.808) |
−0.275 (0.403) |
−0.321 (0.358) |
0.272 (0.371) |
| N | 24,369 | 31,362 | 12,596 | 747 | 3605 | 39,980 | 27,712 | 28,019 |
| R-squared | 0.102 | 0.105 | 0.110 | 0.136 | 0.115 | 0.109 | 0.090 | 0.088 |
| Panel C: (EM) | ||||||||
| COVID | −0.033∗ (0.020) |
−0.016 (0.018) |
−0.014 (0.028) |
−0.076 (0.110) |
−0.066 (0.054) |
−0.016 (0.015) |
−0.009 (0.019) |
−0.037∗ (0.019) |
| Indigenous | 0.001 (0.011) |
−0.007 (0.011) |
−0.014 (0.014) |
0.022 (0.043) |
−0.005 (0.021) |
−0.002 (0.010) |
0.003 (0.009) |
−0.007 (0.011) |
| Indigenous × COVID | −0.027 (0.022) |
0.037∗ (0.021) |
0.033 (0.035) |
0.080 (0.117) |
0.065 (0.048) |
0.010 (0.015) |
0.018 (0.017) |
0.012 (0.023) |
| N | 22,230 | 28,283 | 11,617 | 636 | 2597 | 37,368 | 24,013 | 26,500 |
| R-squared | 0.067 | 0.061 | 0.069 | 0.211 | 0.095 | 0.061 | 0.064 | 0.064 |
| Panel D: (IM) | ||||||||
| COVID | −0.000 (0.000) |
−0.000 (0.000) |
0.000 (0.000) |
0.002 (0.002) |
0.000 (0.001) |
−0.000 (0.000) |
−0.000 (0.000) |
−0.000 (0.000) |
| Indigenous | −0.001 (0.011) |
−0.004 (0.011) |
−0.012 (0.014) |
0.026 (0.046) |
−0.004 (0.022) |
−0.000 (0.011) |
0.005 (0.009) |
−0.007 (0.011) |
| Indigenous × COVID | −0.000 (0.000) |
0.000 (0.000) |
0.000 (0.000) |
0.000 (0.002) |
0.001 (0.001) |
0.000 (0.000) |
0.000 (0.000) |
0.000 (0.000) |
| N | 22,230 | 28,283 | 11,617 | 636 | 2597 | 37,368 | 24,013 | 26,500 |
| R-squared | 0.067 | 0.061 | 0.069 | 0.211 | 0.095 | 0.061 | 0.064 | 0.064 |
Notes: Each panel shows results from 8 regressions (columns). Dependent variable is birth weight (grams) in panels A and B, and a dummy in panels C and D. Panels A and C: COVID variable captures the extensive margin of potential COVID-19 exposure. Panels B and D: COVID variable captures the intensive margin of potential COVID-19 exposure. All regressions include mother and child covariates in addition to pre-pandemic municipality characteristics interacted with a linear trend. All regressions control for municipality and month-by-year fixed effects. Standard errors clustered at the mother's residence municipality are in parentheses. Sample includes all Indigenous births in the state of Amazonas from Jan 1, 2019 to July 31, 2020 (excluding births in the capital city Manaus). ∗p < 0.1, ∗∗p < 0.05, ∗∗∗p < 0.01.