FIGURE 3.

Mean effect size differences in biodiversity metrics between forest and four farming systems of increasing intensity for nine bird guilds classified as (a) agriculture avoiders (endemic species, frugivores, and insectivores) when biodiversity is lower in agricultural systems than forest, (b) agriculture associates (habitat generalists, migrants, nectarivores, and granivores) when biodiversity is greater in agricultural systems than forest, and (c) neutral when no difference was recorded between forest and agriculture (>0, greater biodiversity in cocoa system than forest; <0, less biodiversity in cocoa system than forest; asterisks, estimated Hedges’ g* significantly different from 0 at *p< 0.05, **p< 0.01, or ***p < 0.001; model estimate tails, 95% CIs). Data compiled from 16 studies of biodiversity in cocoa.