TABLE 1.
Detailed description of the selected studies
| Reference | N | Mean age, % boys, ethnicity a | Intervention | Comparison group | Study design | Target group | Stress outcomes | Significant differences b |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Barnes et al. (2001) | 33 | 16.6, 54% boys, 97% minorities | Transcendental meditation (n = 15) | Lifestyle education (n = 18) | RCT | Screened (high SBP) | Resting SBP, DBP, HR (supine position, relaxed for 15 min [three measurements]) SBP, DBP, HR (during 10‐min car‐driving and social stressor [readings every other minute]) | Lower resting SBP, decreases in SBP and HR reactivity (car stressor) and SBP reactivity (social stressor) at post‐intervention |
| Barnes, Treiber, and Johnson (2004) | 100 | 16.2, 63% boys, 100% minorities | Transcendental meditation (n = 50) | Lifestyle education (n = 50) | Cluster RCT | Screened (high SBP) | Ambulatory SBP, DBP, HR (daytime, 6 AM to 11 PM [every 20 min] and night‐time, 11 PM to 6 AM [every 30 min]) | Decrease in daytime SBP at post‐intervention and follow‐up |
| Barnes, Davis, et al. (2004) | 73 | 12.3, 53% boys, 52% minorities | Concentration‐type meditation (n = 34) | Health education (n = 39) | Cluster RCT | Community | Resting SBP, DBP, HR (recordings for 10 min [average of last three readings]) ambulatory SBP, DBP, HR (daytime school, 8 AM to 3 PM [every 20 min], daytime after school, 3 PM to 10 PM [every 20 min] and night‐time, 12 PM – 6 AM [every 30 min]) | Decreases in resting SBP, ambulatory daytime after school SBP, DBP and HR at post‐intervention |
| Barnes et al. (2012) | 170 | 15.6, 46% boys, 91% minorities | Williams LifeSkills (n = 91) | Health education (n = 79) | Cluster RCT | Community | Ambulatory SBP, DBP (daytime school, 8 AM to 3 PM [every 30 min], daytime after school, 3 PM to 10 PM [every 20 min], and night‐time, 10 PM to 6 AM [every 20 min]) | None |
| Bayne‐Smith et al. (2004) | 439 | 16.1, 0% boys, 89% minorities | Physical activity and teenage health (n = 310) | Traditional PE (n = 129) | RCT | Community | Resting SBP, DBP (two measurements after 5–15 min of rest in seated position [only second reading recorded]) | Reduced SBP and DBP at post‐intervention |
| Benson et al. (1994) | 37 | 15.5 | Health curriculum (n = 21) | Waitlist (n = 16) | RCT | Community | SBP, DBP, HR (resting baseline and during MAT) | None |
| Bradley et al. (2010) | 98 | 15.3, 47% boys, 52% minorities | Heart rhythm coherence biofeedback training (n = 50) | Waitlist control (n = 48) | Cluster RCT | Community | Resting HR, HRV (HF power, LF power, coherence) [continuous recordings over a 4‐min resting period] HR, HRV (HF power, LF power, coherence) [continuous recordings over a 4‐min stress preparation period, before SCWC task] | Reduced HR and increased HRV measures at post‐intervention |
| Calvete et al. (2019) | 503 | Grade 8 (13.6), 9 (14.6), 10 (15.8), 52% boys | Incremental personality theory (grade 8 n = 87; grade 9 n = 132; grade 10 n = 44) | Educational control (grade 8 n = 77; grade 9 n = 125; grade 10 n = 38) | RCT | Community | Salivary cortisol (sample collected at mean time of 11:02 AM) | None (only pre‐ and two follow‐up measurements) |
| Chang et al. (2013) | 67 | 12.5, 51% boys | Laughing Qigong (n = 34) | Read books or did homework (n = 33) | Quasi‐experiment | Community | Salivary cortisol (cotton wads in mouth for 2 min) Resting HR, HRV (HF, LF), SBP, DBP (measured in supine position) | None |
| Ewart et al. (1987) | 110 | 14.7, 60% boys, 61% minorities | Progressive muscle relaxation (n = 51) | Assessment only (n = 59) | RCT | Screened (high BP) | Resting SBP, DBP (measurements after at least 10 min rest [average of nine measurements over 20‐min period]) | Reduced SBP at post‐intervention |
| Fishbein et al. (2016) | 69 | 16.7, 46% boys, 91% minorities | Mindful yoga (n = 30) | Regular classes (n = 39) | RCT | Self‐selected | HR, HRV (pre‐stressor rest, baseline during SCT with no tone, during SCT with tone, recovery period) | None |
| Flores (1995) | 49 | 12.6, 0% boys, 87% minorities | Dance for health + health education (n = 26) | Usual PA (n = 23) | Cluster RCT | Community | Resting HR | Reduced resting HR at post‐intervention |
| Gregoski et al. (2011) c | 166 | 15.0, 41% boys, 100% minorities | Breathing awareness meditation (n = 53); life skills training (LST) (n = 69) | Health education control (n = 44) | Cluster RCT | Screened (high SBP) | Ambulatory SBP, DBP HR (daytime school, 7 AM to 3 PM [every 30 min], after school, 3 PM to 10 PM [every 20 min], and night‐time, 12 AM to 7 AM [every 30 min]) | Decreased daytime school and night‐time SBP (BAM) and increased daytime school HR (LST) at post‐intervention |
| Hagins et al. (2013) | 30 | 10.8, 57% boys, 50% minorities | Yoga (n = 15) | PE (n = 15) | RCT | Community | SBP, DBP, HR (two successive measurements after 5 min rest [mean initial rest], at halfway point and at the end of MAT or MTT [end of stressor 1 and 2], and recovery values at the end of 5 and 10 min of rest [mean recovery rest]) | None |
| Killen et al. (1988) | 1130 | 15.0, 100/0% boys, 31% minorities | Special intervention (boys n = 345, girls n = 267) | Control (boys n = 277, girls n = 241) | Cluster RCT | Community | Resting SBP, DBP, HR (three measurements at 1‐min intervals after sitting quietly for 3 min [means of the second and the third measurement]) | Reduced resting HR and increased DBP for boys and girls at follow‐up (only pre‐ and follow‐up measurements) |
| Lindblad et al. (2007) | 43 | 12.0, 47% boys | Music education (n = 16) | Normal curriculum (n = 27) | Quasi‐experiment | Community | Saliva cortisol (collected by swabs, taken at awakening, 30 min after awakening, 1 h after lunch, and before going to bed in the evening) [means log of saliva cortisol] | None |
| Markham (2004) | 66 | 14.6, 73% boys, 25% minorities | Positive emotional refocusing (n = 41) | Waitlist (n = 25) | RCT | Community | Resting HRV (coherence, HF, LF) (baseline period of 7 min [pre‐stressor]) | None |
| McClendon and Scott (2018) | 22 | 14.8, 23% boys, 100% minorities | Yoga (n = 11) | Indoor track (n = 11) | Quasi‐experiment | Community | Resting HR, SBP, DBP (prior to the start of any PA) | None |
| Ørntoft et al. (2016) | 494 | 11.1, 49% boys | FIFA 11 for health (n = 354) | PE (n = 140) | Cluster RCT | Community | Resting SBP, DBP (measurements following at least 10 min of rest [average of three measurements]); resting HR (measurements following at least 10 min of rest, 15 s intervals over entire resting period [lowest HR value]) | Decreased SBP at post‐intervention |
| Osborne et al. (2007) | 22 | 13.9, 39% boys | Music performance enhancement program (n = 13) | Behaviour exposure only (n = 9) | RCT | Screened (music anxiety) | HR (5 min prior to the start [pre‐stressor], during performance (start and end), and ending 5 min after musical performance [recovery period], recorded continuously) | None |
| Salazar (2017) | 95 | 15.8, 32% boys, 23% minorities | Mindfulness (n = 40) | Regular PE (n = 55) | Quasi‐experiment | Self‐selected | Resting PR (wait 30 s to receive a PR reading) | Lower PR at post‐intervention and follow‐up |
| Schonert‐Reichl et al. (2015) | 99 | 10.2, 56% boys | Mindfulness‐based education school‐emotional learning (n = 48) | Social responsibility program (n = 51) | Cluster RCT | Community | Salivary cortisol (dental cotton roll in mouth for 1 min, collected three times within 1 day at 9 AM, 11:30 AM and 2:30 PM, relative to awakening [slope difference scores − cortisol change across the day]) | Improved stress physiology at post‐intervention |
| Sibinga et al. (2013) | 30 | 12.5, 100% boys, 95% minorities | Mindfulness‐based stress reduction (n = 19) | Health education (n = 11) | RCT | Community | Salivary cortisol (collected at two successive days at awakening, 60 min post‐awakening, 2:30 PM, and bedtime [AUCg approach]) | None |
| Sieverdes et al. (2014) | 28 | 12.3, 43% boys, 43% minorities | Hatha yoga (n = 14) | Music and art classes (n = 14) | RCT | Community | Resting HR (rest for 10 min [four readings]);resting SBP, DBP (rest for 10 min [averaging last three readings]) salivary cortisol (bedtime, upon awakening, before leaving the bed and 30 and 60 min afterwards [AUC analysis]) | None |
| Skoradal et al. (2018) | 392 | 11.1, 53% boys | FIFA 11 for health (n = 292) | Normal curriculum (n = 100) | Cluster RCT | Community | Resting SBP, DBP (assessments after 15‐20 min rest [average of three consecutive measurements]) resting HR (assessments after 15–20 min rest [lowest HR recording]) | Decreased SBP at post‐intervention |
| Telles and Srinivas (1998) | 24 | 14.1 | Yoga (n = 12) | PA (gardening) (n = 12) | Cluster RCT | Screened (impaired vision) | Resting HR (assessments for 10 min after an initial 15‐min period of rest [counting the QRS complexes in successive 60‐s epochs, continuously]) | None |
| Tomette (2015) | 17 | 16.0, 36% boys, 63% minorities | Healthy living (n = 11) | Chemistry course (n = 6) | Quasi‐experiment | Self‐selected | Salivary cortisol | Increased salivary cortisol at post‐intervention |
| Weigensberg et al. (2009) | 12 | 16.0, 50% boys, 100% minorities | Interactive guided imagery (n = 6) | Nonintervention control group (n = 6) | RCT | Screened (overweight) | Salivary cortisol (cotton swab in mouth for 2 min [samples collected at beginning (4 PM) and end of each session (5.30 PM)]) | Decreases in salivary cortisol from pre‐ to post sessions |
| Wright et al. (2011) c | 121 | 15.0, 41% boys, 100% minorities | Breathing awareness meditation (n = 35), life skills training (n = 42) | Health education (n = 44) | Cluster RCT | Screened (high SBP) | Ambulatory SBP, DBP, HR (24‐h) | None (only pre‐ and follow‐up measurements) |
| Yoo et al. (2016) | 42 | 10.0, 48% boys | Mind‐subtraction meditation (n = 23) | Reading sessions (n = 19) | Quasi‐experiment | Community | Salivary cortisol (collection during afternoon hours of 2 to 4 [within 1‐min intervals, participants spat three times in cups]) | Lowered salivary cortisol at post‐intervention |
Abbreviations: AUC, area under the curve; AUCg, area‐under the curve with respect to ground; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; HF, high frequency; HR, heart rate; HRV, heart rate variability; LF, low frequency; MAT, mental arithmetic task; MTT, mirror tracing task; PA, physical activity; PE, physical education; PR, pulse rate; RCT, randomized controlled trial; SBP, systolic blood pressure; SCT, stroop‐change task; SCW, stroop colour‐word task; VLF, very low frequency.
a
Percentage of minorities (i.e., non‐Caucasian).
b
Significant differences reported in the included studies (favouring the intervention group over the control group).
c
Articles have overlapping samples (i.e., in analyses defined as same sample), sample size of Wright et al. (2011) is not included in the total sample size.